Christian Wolmar - The Iron Road - An Illustrated History of The Railroad-DK (2014) PDF

A N I L L U S T R AT E D
HISTORYOFTHERAILROAD
CHRISTIAN WOLMAR
LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH,
MELBOURNE, DELHI
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Contents
Introduction 8
12 THE FIRST TRACKS

From Wagonways to Railroads 14
The Father of Railroads 22
Powering the Engine 30
The First American Railroads 32
The Early Years of American Steam 40
Europe Takes to the Rails 42
Map: Western European Railroads 50
Railroad Mania 52
Wheels and Trucks 58
The American Civil War 60
Signals in the Steam Age 66
Heroic Failures 68
India: Dalhousie’s Colonial Imperative 76
Map: Early Indian Railroads 82
The Navvies: Digging, Drinking, and Fighting 84
The Track Structure 90
Cuban Sugar Railroads 92
100 THE SPREAD OF THE RAILROADS

Crossing the Alps 102
Climbing Mountains 108
The Panama Railroad: A Deadly Rush for Gold 110
Crossing America 120
Map: North American Transcontinentals 128
Going Underground 130
Death on the Rails 138
Stopping the Train 144
The Railroad Experience 146
Turnouts and Sidings 152
Temples of Steam 154
Railroad Signal Telegraphy 160
Monopolies and Railroad Barons 162
Building Bridges 168
The Pullman Phenomenon 170
178 RAILROADS COME OF AGE
The Trans-Siberian Railway 180
Map: The Trans-Siberian Railway 188
The Orient Express 190
The Most Spectacular Railroads in the World 198
Going Uphill 204
Henry Flagler and the Overseas Railroad 206
Hauling Freight 212
Cape to Cairo: the Railroad that Never Was 214
Map: Cape to Cairo 222
Electricity Lightens the Load 224
Going Electric 230
The People Who Ran the Railroads 232
The Wrong Side of the Tracks 240
Indian Hill Railroads: Climbing Out of the Heat 248
258 WAR AND UNCERTAINTY

The Golden Age of the Railroads 260
The Field Railroads of World War I 270
American Luxury 276
Wartime Railroad Disasters 278
The Hejaz Railway 288
Streamliners 294
Australia’s Gauge Bungle 296
High-speed Steam Trains 304
Going Diesel: from the Fliegende Hamburger to the Future 312
Diesel Power Meets Electricity 318
World War II: Atrocities on the Line 320
328 THE IRON ROAD TODAY

Brezhnev’s Folly 330
Railroads Lost and Found 340
Vive le Channel Tunnel 348
Building Tunnels 354
Switzerland: the Best of the Best 356
Going Faster: Bullet Trains and High-speed Lines 364
China, the New Pioneer 372
The Railroad Renaissance 382
Maglev Trains 388
Glossary 390
Bibliography 392
Index 394
Acknowledgments 399
8 INTRODUCTION
Introduction
O f all the great inventions of the Industrial Revolution, the

railroads had the most impact. In a world before rail, travel
over any distance was a major undertaking. Regions of even small
countries, such as France or England, could be up to seven days’
journey from the capital, while large countries like the United
States, China, or Russia could take months to cross. Until the
early 19th century, most people lived their whole lives within
the confines of the town or rural area in which they were born,
and no one had ever gone faster than a horse could gallop. Travel
was simply too difficult and too expensive for the vast majority of
people, which in turn limited the spread of ideas and technology.
Lack of mobility was a major barrier to economic and social
development. In the absence of rapid transportation, people
could starve within only a few hundred miles of plentiful food
supplies. The slow transit of goods by horse and cart, or along
rivers and canals, meant that perishables had to be consumed
very rapidly. Sending a letter across the country took days, and
newspapers were a misnomer, since they were effectively full of
old information. It took months for people to learn the fate
of loved ones at war, and news of major events, from even just a
short distance away, filtered through slowly.
Limitations on travel also translated into social restriction—
people had little choice of spouse, since opportunities to meet
potential marriage partners from even neighboring towns were
rare. Concepts of time, too, were different before the railroads.
Daily life was regulated by the sun, and towns just a few miles east
or west of each other could operate on different schedules.
INTRODUCTION 9
Then the railroads arrived and changed everything. One of their

first major impacts was to force countries to standardize
their measurements of time, both nationally and internationally,
since railroad timetables would otherwise be too confusing.
Greenwich Mean Time, the standard by which the world sets its
clocks, was created partly as a result of the railroads, and the US
was divided into four time zones for the same reason. The Trans-
Siberian, the longest railroad in the world, still operates according
to Moscow time, even though the line crosses seven time zones on
its way to Vladivostok. Punctuality and time-keeping thus became
vital, not just with regard to the railroads, but in all spheres of
life. The railroads created the structured day, which, prior to their
arrival, had been ten hours long, rather than today’s norm of
eight. In other words, they created the “nine-to-five” routine.
The railroads overthrew all established concepts of distance
and time, and social upheaval followed. The last vestiges of
feudalism were swept away, since people were no longer tied to
the land—indeed, they could now work far from home. People
worked standard hours and expected to do so for a wage. Thus,
the growth of capitalism went hand in hand with the expansion
of the iron road. As people no longer had to find employment
near their homes, towns and cities could become far larger than
would previously have been possible. Suburban sprawl, often
thought of as a product of the automobile age, is, in fact, the
result of the development of commuter lines.
Access to long-distance travel, in relative comfort at fairly
low cost, changed people’s horizons and opened up their
imaginations. What had previously been impossible became
routine—such as going to the seaside or visiting an exhibition.
On a social level, the scope for potential marriage partners
10 INTRODUCTION
suddenly broadened, being no longer confined to the immediate

vicinity. The exchange of ideas took off as national conferences
could now be convened, and the inventions of the Industrial
Revolution spread—first across Britain, then across the world.
Professional sports became feasible as teams and their supporters
could travel long distances to play other teams, and league size
was limited only by how far a team could travel in a day.
Warfare, too, was revolutionized by the railroads. Armies had
traditionally sustained themselves by foraging and pillaging—an
unreliable practice that made it impossible to keep troops in the
same place for long, since supplies, especially for the animals,
inevitably ran out. These logistical restrictions meant that battles
took place over days rather than weeks or months. With the rise of
railroads, armies no longer needed to be constantly on the move,
since they could be supplied with food and munitions from the
nearest railhead. They were also invaluable in transporting troops
quickly to quell domestic riots or launch wars against neighbors.
Nation states became more cohesive as country-wide railroad
systems developed. The railroads, often state-owned, were the
glue that bound a country together, linking disparate regions and
enabling governments to expand their influence in remote,
previously lawless areas. The railroads also stimulated large
movements of people: Siberia and the American West were both
populated after major lines were built. Settlements everywhere
congregated around the tracks; indeed, in the US, several towns
that were bypassed by the iron road simply moved to be closer to
it. Stations became hubs, attracting development and commerce.
As the railroads expanded they brought change in their
wake. Railroad companies were often the largest organizations
in their respective countries and, due to their size, required new
INTRODUCTION 11
STEAM AND SPEED

Built in 1938, the Mallard
was the fastest steam
engine of all time, and
came to symbolize the
technological triumphs
of the golden age of
the railroads.
types of business management and even accounting methods.

The very engines of capitalism—bank loans, stock markets,
information on investment—suddenly became possible.
Railroad companies needed banks to fund their expansion and,
in turn, banks found railroad companies to be their best clients,
since they were the biggest and most ambitious. It was no
coincidence that banks and railroad companies were the driving
force of mid- and late-19th century capitalism.
Moreover, since the railroad companies employed more
workers than any other, it was inevitable that, as the trade union
movement was born and developed, the railroads became the
industry in which they flourished. Indeed, they were the site of
many of the fiercest disputes between capital and labor.
The story of the railroads is not just one of trains and
technology, and this richer history, set in a wider social context,
is the one this book aims to tell. Despite a strong challenge from
the automobile, the railroads remain a brilliant technological
feat and a great way to travel—but they are, in fact, much more
than that, as every page will show.
The First
Tracks
LIMMAT
STEAM, 1847
T oday’s railroads are a combination of inventions that were made
over millennia, starting with the wheel around 8000 bce and
culminating in the steam engine in the late 18th century. By the
early 1800s, steam engines—which began as huge, cumbersome
machines—were small enough to be put on wheels, and so the self-
propelling “steam locomotive” was born. The next stage was simply
to hitch the locomotive to a train— consisting either of cars carrying
freight, or of coaches bearing passengers.
There were many who argued that train travel would never be
popular, or that horses should provide the power, but once the
world’s first major railroad, the Liverpool and Manchester line,
opened in England in 1830, there was no stopping the spread of the
iron road. The United States quickly followed, and the invention
spread throughout Europe—tentatively at first, but then quite
rapidly. Lines were opened to enormous fanfare, and people flocked
to the new stations—many to begin routines of journeying to work
by rail, many just to enjoy the new technology.
There were some initial setbacks, however. Every aspect of the
railroads, from laying tracks and signaling to training staff and
building stations, had to be learned from scratch. This was the birth
of a completely new industry and teething problems were inevitable.
There were accidents and fires, and investors fell prey to fraudsters
and confidence tricksters. Indeed, locomotives were prone to blow up
or break down, and a prominent politician, William Huskisson, was
killed at the opening of the first railroad when he failed to respond
quickly enough to warnings of a passing train. Nevertheless, all these
difficulties were overcome, and within a couple of decades trains were
traveling at twice the speed of a galloping horse and covering huge
distances. The railroad age had begun.
14 T H E F I R S T T R AC K S
From Wagonways
to Railroads
T HE WORLD’S FIRST RAILROAD, the Liverpool and Manchester

line, opened in England in 1830, at the end of the Industrial
Revolution. It was the culmination of decades of experimentation
with tracks, wagons, and engines, and proved beyond doubt that the
railroad was the future of land transportation. But it was also an
ancient technology. The wheel had been invented more than 7,000
years earlier, and had soon been given a track. By the time of the
Ancient Greeks (600 BCE–600 CE), the wheels of carts and coaches
were running in specially dug out channels that prevented them
from sliding off the road in wet weather, and similar tracks have been
found in the ruins of Pompeii and Sicily. Myth has it that Oedipus
slew his father when the two came across each other on one such
road and argued over who had the right of way.
The earliest image of wooden tracks being used for transportation
dates back to 1350 and can be seen in a church in Freiburg im
Breisgau, Germany. Within a couple of centuries, numerous
wagonways (or paths made of such tracks) had been built in
Germany and Britain to haul heavily loaded wagons out of mines.
The first of these appeared in Saxony, which had become a major
tin and silver mining region by the 14th century. Activity in the
Saxon mines peaked in the 16th century, thanks to the development
of the Leitnagel Hund—a four-wheeled mining truck that was far
more efficient than its predecessors. It had an iron bar that projected
from its underside into a groove between a pair of wooden tracks, to
keep it from veering off course. Operating the truck demanded
great skill, and there were inevitably accidents, but it soon
revolutionized the German mining industry, making it possible to
transport much larger quantities of ore to the surface for smelting.
At first, this system was entirely dependent on manpower, but soon
horses replaced men, enabling even heavier loads to be moved.
The next development was the introduction of rails for the trucks
to travel on. The earliest of these, found in Germany and known as
Karrenbahnen, were made of wood, and by the early 18th century, in the
coal region of the Ruhr, they had a lip—an L-shaped flange that kept
F RO M WAG O N WAY S T O R A I L ROA D S 15
the wagons on the tracks. On some wagonways, the flange was fitted
to the wheels of the trucks rather than the tracks, an arrangement
that later became standard on the railroad.
By the time the flange had been introduced, Britain had also
developed a system of wagonways. It was based on the German
system, but soon became more extensive than its precursor. Britain
was the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, and its wagonways
connected an ever-expanding network of mines to an increasing
number of factories, and to waterways that enabled coal and minerals
to be shipped even further afield. This transportation system had a
huge economic impact on Britain, and both the industrial and
domestic consumption of coal increased tenfold between 1700 and
the early 1800s. The network that emerged in the northeast of England
in the 17th century was so busy with traffic that it became known as
the Newcastle Roads. By 1660, there were nine wagonways on Tyneside
alone, and several others in the Midlands to the south. In 1726, a
THE FIRST TRACKS

Misrah Ghar il-Kbir in Malta is the site of limestone cart
tracks dating to around 2000 BCE . In places the ruts cross
each other and form junctions, giving the appearance of
tracks at a railroad switching yard.
group of coal mine owners called the Grand Allies went a step further
by linking their collieries to a shared wagonway. They even created a
“main line,” the Tanfield Wagonway, much of which had two tracks,
permitting a continuous flow of inbound and outbound vehicles. The
route linked several pits with the River Tyne, crossing the Causey
Arch—a bridge with a 105-ft (32-m) span over a rocky ravine—en
route. Costing £12,000 (around £1.5 million or $2.4 million in today’s
money), the arch was built by stonemason Ralph Wood and still
stands today. At the time it was the longest single-span bridge in
Britain, and it is perhaps the oldest railroad bridge in the world. It
accommodated two tracks—the “main way” to take coal to the river,
and the “bye way” for returning empty wagons—and at its peak, over
900 horse-drawn wagons crossed the arch each day. There were
several such wagonways in Britain and the rest of Europe, but
cooperative ventures were rare—many pit owners deliberately built
wagonways that prevented rivals from reaching the waterways.
It was not until the late eighteenth century that iron rails were first
used, notably by mining engineer Friedrichs zu Klausthal near Hanover,
Germany. Soon afterward, iron rails were laid to move trucks around
the ironworks at the key industrial site of Coalbrookdale in the
Midlands, England. The initial idea was to cover existing wooden rails
with an iron cap so that they
TOP SPEEDS THEN would last longer (they had
AND NOW previously been replaced every
year), but advances in smelting
Nicholas Cugnot’s locomotive, technology soon made it possible
18th century to construct the entire rails from
2½ mph (4kph)
iron. It was around this time that
the words “railroad” and
“railway” were adopted for the
wagonways of the Midlands,
which now carried lime, ore,
and pig iron as well as coal.
Train à Grande Vitesse (TGV), Throughout this period, railroad
21st century
cars also became larger and were
357mph (574kph)
able to carry loads of more than
2½ tons (2.5 tonnes), and the
gauge of the tracks (the distance
between them) was largely
standardized at 5ft (1.5m). This width best suited the horses that hauled
the cars (any wider and they were too heavy to pull), and it was close to
the gauge that eventually prevailed across much of the world—4ft 8½in
(1,435mm), or today’s “standard” gauge.
These iron railroads flourished for about 40 years. At their peak,
thousands of miles of iron tracks stretched across Britain, as opposed
to the mere hundreds of miles of wooden equivalents that preceded
them, and they reached far beyond the coalfields, linking mines and
quarries with ports, rivers, and canals. Their main purpose was to
transport minerals to the nearest waterway, but a few carried
passengers on a casual basis—usually workers hopping on for a ride
to or from a mine or a quarry. Some lines, such as the Swansea and
Mumbles line in South Wales, provided passenger cars for people, but
the main business was freight.
A few canny mine owners devised more sophisticated railroad

systems, involving cables and the use of gravity. Ralph Allen, the
owner of a quarry above Bath Spa, designed a wagonway on which
the loaded cars descending the hill into the city pulled the unloaded
ones back up the incline behind them. Such “gravity railroads”
became common in the 18th century. The simplest ones used gravity
to roll the cars downhill, and horses to pull the empty ones back up.
An entirely frivolous example was the Roulette, built for Louis XIV of
France in the gardens of Marly, near Paris. The Sun King liked to
entertain his guests by giving them a ride on the Roulette. Although
technically a gravity railroad, this was really more like a rollercoaster
built into a hill. The carved, gilded car thundered down an 820-ft
(250-m) wooden track into a valley and then shot up the other side.
The passengers boarded from a small, classical building that could
lay claim to being the world’s first train station, then three bewigged
valets pushed the car to the top of the incline, from where gravity
took over, giving the aristocrats a novel thrill.
For all their variety, the early railroads still required horses or
humans to pull them along. What they needed was an engine to drive
them, and just such a device was being developed. This was the steam
engine, which began life as a stationary machine that generated power
to drive water pumps, but was soon adapted to provide rotary power to
drive wheels. It was a small leap to connect the engine to the wheels it
was driving, thus creating a self-propelling, steam-powered vehicle.
THE CAUSEY ARCH

Shown here in a watercolor by Joseph Atkinson,
the Causey Arch, built 1725–26, is thought to
be the oldest surviving single-arch railroad bridge
in the world. The line has long since closed, but
the bridge still serves as a footpath.
The idea of steam power goes back to Classical times—Archimedes

recognized it, and Hero of Alexandria experimented with it—but it
was only in the late 17th century that Frenchman Denis Papin
harnessed it with his “steam digester,” a crude pressure cooker that
he adapted to make an “atmospheric engine”—essentially a cylinder
containing a piston that could oscillate under the pressure of steam
expanding and condensing. Applying the principles that Papin had
documented, Thomas Newcomen, an ironmaster from Devon
working in the early 18th century, developed the idea of producing
steam engines to pump water from mines, and made 60 of them.
After Newcomen died and the patents ran out, engineers copied his
ideas and his engines were built in many countries, including the US,
the German states, and the Austrian Empire, where one was used to
power the fountains for Prinz von Schwarzenberg’s palace in Vienna.
However, it was Scottish engineer James Watt who first made steam
power commercially viable, by making a series of technical
improvements to Newcomen’s designs so that they could be adapted
to carry out a wide variety of tasks. He formed a partnership with
English manufacturer Matthew Boulton, and soon their engines
were powering looms, mills, and ships across the world.
Nicholas Cugnot, an artillery lieutenant from eastern France,
made the first attempt to put a steam engine on wheels around 1672,
when he designed what he hoped would be a motorized gun platform.
On a test run in Paris, his engine propelled itself slowly
forward, but then it veered off course and
overturned, prompting the city authorities to
ban it as a public danger. There were various
other attempts, both in Britain and the US, to
build steam-powered road vehicles, but they
were so heavy they destroyed the roads—a
problem that was solved by Cornishman
Richard Trevithick, who first put the
FRENCH STEAM PIONEER

Denis Papin invented the “steam digester”,
a type of pressure cooker that was designed
to soften bones. It was the first device to
use the power of steam, and led Papin to
create the first steam-driven engine.
THE “STEAM TROLLEY,” 1672

Nicholas Cugnot’s steam-powered
engine on wheels is thought to
have been the first self-propelled
vehicle in the world.
engine on rails. Trevithick had a setback in 1801, when his “road

carriage” caught fire, but three years later he produced a locomotive
that traveled at 5mph (8kph) at Pen-y-Darren, an ironworks in Wales.
Later still, he demonstrated his invention on a circular track near the
present site of Euston station, London, playfully calling it Catch Me
Who Can. Like Louis XIV’s Roulette, however, it was more of a
amusement park ride than a serious commercial enterprise, and
Trevithick went off to develop stationary steam engines for the gold
and silver mines of Peru.
By the time Trevithick left England, all the technology needed
for a modern railroad was in place. Like railroad tracks, the steam
locomotive was slow to develop—indeed, it seemed for a while that
horses would power the railroads. It took time for new methods to
replace the old, and for many years the railroads were a patchwork of
iron and wooden tracks, with steam locomotives being tested while
horse-drawn lines were being built. What the railroads needed was a
genius to bring these disparate elements together. That genius was
civil engineer George Stephenson—a great synthesizer of ideas, who
was soon dubbed the “father of railroads.”
The Father of Railroads
H UNDREDS OF INVENTORS, at different times, contributed to

the creation of the railroads, but one individual stands out, not
because he was the cleverest or the most innovative, but because he
was the best at exploiting the ideas of others and turning them into
workable concepts—George Stephenson. Born in modest
circumstances in Wylam, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, he was
a barely literate, self-educated man who did not suffer fools gladly, but
who deserves the title of “father of railroads”, even though he made no
significant inventions of his own. He played an important role in the
development of two important lines: the Stockton and Darlington,
completed in 1825, which was really the last and most sophisticated of
the wagonways (see pp.14–21); and the Liverpool and Manchester,
whose opening five years later heralded the real start of the railroad
age. He continued to play a vital role in the spread of the railroads,
both in Britain and abroad, until his death in 1848.
Stephenson started out as a pit boy, but he soon
realized that in order to progress he needed
engineering skills, and he learned these initially
with the help of a local schoolmaster. Before
long, he found work as an engine wright and
was put in charge of all the stationary engines
at Killingworth, a large coal mine in
Northumberland. He quickly realised that
the key to making better use of steam
technology was to enable the engines to
run on rails and haul loads directly,
rather than using the cable system,
whereby stationary engines reeled
in cables attached to cars (see p.71),
and he persuaded the colliery
GEORGE STEPHENSON
A self-taught engineer, Stephenson
pioneered a steam locomotive that
ran on rails, and built the world’s first fully
fledged steam railroad, the Liverpool and
Manchester line, which opened in 1830.
T H E FAT H E R O F R A I L ROA D S 23
LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER

TRAIN TICKET, c.1830
Passenger train cars on the Liverpool
and Manchester were originally divided
into first, second, and third class.
Despite the basic conditions in third,
the railroads represented a new era
of mobility for ordinary people.
owners to give him the means to build a “traveling machine”—his

name for the locomotive. The result was unveiled in 1814—a steam
engine somewhat oddly named Blücher after Gebhard Leberecht von
Blücher, a Prussian general who led his army to several victories
against Napoleon, the common enemy of Britain and Prussia at the
time. Incorporating features from Trevithick’s engines (see pp.20–21),
Blücher was built in the colliery shop and proved to be more powerful
than any of its predecessors, as it could haul 30 tons (30.5 tonnes)
of coal up an incline at 4mph (6.5kph).
The success of Blücher spurred Stephenson to build another 16
locomotives over the next 10 years, most of which were commissioned
by local collieries. One went to the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway in
1817, but was withdrawn because it damaged the line’s cast-iron rails.
The same fate befell a second engine that was sent to the railroad at
Scott’s Pit at Llansamlet, near Swansea, in 1819. These failures
demonstrated the great difficulty in developing engines that were light
enough not to break the primitive tracks, but powerful enough to
haul a reasonable load. Showing his versatility as an engineer,
Stephenson initially solved this problem by using steam pressure to
create a “steam spring” to cushion the weight of the load. He then
simply increased the number of wheels to distribute the weight. In
1820, Stephenson was hired to build an 8-mile (13-km) railroad at
Hetton colliery. The result was a train that relied on gravity on the
downward slopes and steam locomotion on the level or uphill sections.
It was the first railroad that used no animal power whatsoever.
However, Stephenson’s engines continued to have difficulties, and
he did not have the resources to solve them. In the early 1820s, he
became quite despondent, but then developments in the coal town of
Darlington lifted his spirits. A group of prosperous Quaker colliery
owners, led by Edward Pease and his son Joseph, wanted to create a
GEORGE STEPHENSON’S railroad that would connect

RAILROAD GAUGE OF Darlington to Stockton at the
mouth of the River Tees, where
coastal shipping from London
4ft 8½in (1,435 mm)

docked. They wanted to reduce
the price of coal by making it
cheaper to transport, and to
counter an alternative plan that
was being discussed to build a
BECAME THE canal. Stephenson was the
obvious man to prepare such a
WORLD STANDARD route and build the Stockton
and Darlington Railway, and
was summoned to the Peases’ home to discuss their plan. He was duly
appointed surveyor and engineer on the project, and, since he had
formed a company in 1823 with his son, Robert, to build locomotives
at a works in Newcastle, he could use his own engines on the railroad.
Nevertheless, when Stephenson surveyed the area to be crossed, he
encountered considerable opposition from local landowners and had
to map out a route that would avoid their fox-hunting grounds.
The plan was far more ambitious than any of the former
wagonways. Nearly 37 miles (60km) of track had to be laid, and there
were major physical obstacles too, notably the Myers Flat swamp and
the Skerne River at Darlington. Stephenson eventually created a firm
base in the swamp by filling it with tons of hand-hewn rock, and
called on a local architect to help him design a stone bridge to cross
the river. Despite its length and logistical difficulties, the line took
only three years to construct, but even as it opened debate raged over
what form of traction to use. Stephenson and his son produced the
steam engine Locomotion No. 1, which, on the opening day of June 27,
1825, pulled a train of 34 cars carrying 600 passengers and a variety of
goods through the countryside. However, this was not enough to
convince the Peases. The truth was that Stephenson’s locomotives
were unreliable—they often ran out of steam and frequently needed
repairs—so most of those early trains were hauled by horses; at one
point, the Peases even considered turning the whole line over to
horse-driven trains. Eventually, however, a much better engine
designed by an engineer at Stephenson’s works, Timothy Hackworth,
saved the day, and it was the horses that were phased out.
The completed Stockton and Darlington Railway was recognized as

a major technical advance over its predecessors, but, given the use of
horses, it was still effectively a superior type of wagonway. It was also
flawed. It had few sidings—which allow trains traveling in opposite
directions to pass each other—so arguments and even fights between
drivers were common. The owners also made the mistake of allowing
anyone who was prepared to pay a fee to use their vehicles on the line,
which meant that all kinds of conveyances, rickety and unstable,
were used, resulting in frequent breakdowns. Nevertheless, the
railroad attracted a lot of traffic, and, although it took time to become
profitable, it established an important precedent—Stephenson had
decided on a gauge of 4ft 8½in (1,435mm), which became standard
across much of the world’s railroad network.
The heavy traffic on the Stockton and Darlington line encouraged

entrepreneurs across Britain to promote local railroad plans. Many
of these were never built, but the most important became
Stephenson’s next big project—the Liverpool and Manchester line,
which was conceived on a much larger scale than the Stockton and
Darlington and would become the world’s first modern railroad. A
group of wealthy industrialists in the northwest of England,
annoyed at paying local canal owners’ extortionate rates to
transport their goods, sought to link the two towns with a railroad.
The 31-mile (50-km) line was much more ambitious than the
Stockton and Darlington, and although originally conceived as a
LOCOMOTION NO. 1
This is a model of the locomotive built by
Robert Stephenson and Company in 1825,
which opened the Stockton and Darlington
Railway, hauling passenger and freight cars.
freight railroad, it would also carry passengers, as it linked two very

important towns that had a combined population of 350,000. To
ensure reliability, the trains would be run directly by the company,
which set the pattern for nearly all the lines of the future.
Stephenson was invited by the directors to determine the route.
Again, there was a major area of swampy peat bog, Chat Moss, as
well as a series of streams and rivers that needed fording, requiring
no fewer than 64 bridges, including a nine-arch viaduct over the
River Sankey. Nothing on this scale had ever been attempted before.
Stephenson was again both surveyor and engineer, and personally
studied the terrain. Local landowners violently opposed the line,
and there was a false start when the initial Parliamentary Bill (which
needed to be passed for the line to be built) was thrown out at the
behest of the rival canal owners—partly a result of an embarrassing
performance by Stephenson, who proved to be somewhat
inarticulate in the intimidating atmosphere of Parliament. For a

time, Stephenson was replaced, but he was soon reinstated, and
work began in 1827. Stephenson personally oversaw construction
all along the line, often riding long distances on horseback to check
on progress. His solution to the Chat Moss problem was to float
the railroad embankment on a bed of brushwood and heather. He
also excavated a 2-mile (3.2-km) cutting through Olive Mount at
the entrance to Liverpool, and built the Sankey Viaduct with
sandstone blasted out of the cutting.
The form of traction to be used remained an issue throughout the
line’s construction. The directors of the railroad favored locomotives,
but were unsure whether the existing engines were up to the task, so
they launched a competition, the Rainhill Trials, to decide who
should design the engines for the railroad. Five entrants took part in
the trials, which were held on a completed section of track on
SANKEY VIADUCT
The viaduct over the River Sankey was one
of the trickiest engineering challenges that
George Stephenson faced in constructing
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.
October 6, 1829, in front of 15,000 spectators. The technical requirements

were strict, particularly regarding weight, which was fixed at a
maximum of 6 tons (6 tonnes), and the engines had to complete twenty
2-mile (4-km) trips at an average speed exceeding 10mph (16kph).
One of the entrants, Cycloped, turned out to be a prank (the
engine was in fact a horse on a treadmill), so Rocket, the entry of
George Stephenson’s son, Robert, faced only three rivals: John
Braithwaite and John Ericsson’s Novelty, Timothy Hackworth’s Sans
Pareil, and Timothy Burstall’s Perseverance. In the event, the trial was
easily won. Perseverance never managed more than 6mph (10kph), and
the other two failed to finish the course. Meanwhile, Rocket
thundered up and down the track, ensuring that the Stephensons
won the £500 prize to help develop their engines.
Since the line carried freight in both directions—the raw materials
from the port at Liverpool, and the goods being brought back—as
well as passengers, it was double-tracked from the outset, which
greatly increased capacity. The opening day on September 15, 1830
was an epoch-making event, attracting people from around the
CYCLOPED
In the 1829 Rainhill Trials to find the best locomotive,
Cycloped was proposed as an alternative to the steam
engine. Powered by four horses on a treadmill, it was
disqualified from the trials, which were won by
Stephenson’s Rocket.
“George Stephenson told me as a

young man that railways will
supersede almost all other
methods of conveyance”
JOHN DIXON, QUOTED IN LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON, 1875
world, several of whom would return home to inspire the building of

railroads in their own country. The celebrations, however, were
marred by tragedy—an accident that resulted in the death of William
Huskisson, a prominent politician. Huskisson crossed the tracks to
greet the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, when the
ceremonial trains stopped at Parkside, halfway down the line.
Panic set in when another train, Rocket, approached. Huskisson failed
to climb onto the Duke’s car in time, and fell under the oncoming
train. His leg was shattered and, although Stephenson took him to
Manchester for help—reaching an amazing speed of 35mph (56kph)
en route—Huskisson died that evening.
Despite this tragedy, the completion of the Liverpool and
Manchester marked the peak of Stephenson’s career, but it was by
no means its end. He went on to build numerous railroads and his
son, Robert, who concentrated mainly on improving the
locomotives produced by Robert Stephenson and Company,
constructed a far longer railroad, the 112-mile (180-km) London
and Birmingham line, which is now part of the West Coast Main
Line. The locomotive works thrived and eventually produced more
than 3,000 engines before being absorbed by a larger company
in 1937. George Stephenson also advised early American rail
promoters (see pp.34–35), and assisted in the construction of lines
in Belgium (see pp.43–44) and Spain. The Stephensons certainly
left their mark on the railroads. When the line celebrated its 150th
anniversary in 1980, the then-chairman of British Rail observed:
“The world is a branch line of the Liverpool and Manchester.”
Powering the Engine

Steam was recognized as a potential energy source as early as
the 1st century ce, when steam-powered devices appeared in the
writings of Hero of Alexandria. But it was not until the late 18th
century that steam power was put to practical use in the form of
stationary engines. The principles behind these engines were refined
simultaneously by Owen Evans in the US and Richard Trevithick in
England. Trevithick developed the idea of using high-pressure steam,
which allowed the engine to be small enough to be mounted on
wheels. This meant that, for the first time, steam could be used for
propulsion. His engine Puffing Devil—the world’s first steam
locomotive—made its first journey on Christmas Eve 1801.
How steam is created

One of the key innovations pioneered by George
Stephenson in his 1829 Rocket was the fire-tube boiler,
which became a fundamental feature of all steam
locomotives. Earlier engines had used a single fire tube
to heat the water in the boiler, but Stephenson used 25
copper fire tubes to greatly increase the heat transfer
between the firebox and the boiler, meaning that steam
could be created much more efficiently. Later engines
used superheater elements in place of the fire tubes.
Main steam pipe Superheater element pipes
Steam pipe Smokestack
Regulator valve Safety valve
Blastpipe
Water
Firebox
Valve rod
Boiler
Valve Piston rod Air flow
KEY Cylinders
Steam exhaust Superheated steam
Saturated steam Hot gases
FROM WATER TO MOTION

In a typical steam engine, forward motion is achieved by
burning coal to heat water, creating steam that is passed
at high pressure to the cylinders in order to turn the
locomotive’s running gear.
POW ER ING THE ENGIN E 31
FUELING THE ENGINE

A fireman shovels coal into the firebox
of a steam engine, ensuring that the fire Steam propulsion
tubes are hot enough to superheat the Steam from the boiler is superheated to over 212º F
steam in the element pipes.
(100º C) and transferred to the cylinders at high
pressure, pushing the pistons which turn the
driving wheels via a series of pivots and rods,
converting linear motion to rotation.
High-pressure steam in
Slide valve
Cylinder Piston
PHASE 1: OUTWARD STROKE

High-pressure steam is fed via a sliding valve into the
front of the cylinder where it expands and pushes
the piston, which rotates the wheels by a half-turn.
Low-pressure steam exits
Valve rod
Piston rod
PHASE 2: EXHAUST
The wheel is connected to the sliding valve via a
series of rods. These open the valve to allow the
steam, which has now lost pressure, to escape.
High-pressure steam in
Piston
PHASE 3: RETURN STROKE

The movement of the valve also allows high-
pressure steam to enter the back of the cylinder,
allowing the return phase of the stroke to begin.
Steam exits via exhaust
Piston
PHASE 4: EXHAUST
Once the wheels have made another half turn,
the sliding valve allows spent steam to escape and
fresh steam to enter, and the cycle begins again.
The First American

Railroads
I N 1828, THE 90-YEAR-OLD CHARLES CARROLL STEPPED UP

to make the inaugural speech at the breaking ground ceremony
for the new Baltimore and Ohio railroad. Carroll had witnessed the
birth of the United States firsthand—he was the only surviving
signatory of the American Declaration of Independence. Half a
century later, as he commemorated the launch of this ambitious
project that aimed to reach into the heartland of the continent, his
words proved to be remarkably prescient: “I consider this among
the most important acts of my life, second only to my signing the
Declaration of Independence, if even it be second to that.”
The United States, which had only recently freed itself from the
shackles of colonialism, was far behind Great Britain, its former
colonial master, in terms of technological development. Its earliest
railways—it soon adopted the name “railroads”—were dependent
on British imports, as were its river-boats, factories, and mining
operations, all of which ran on British steam engines. To catch up,
American industrialists kept a close eye on British railway
developments, and often traveled across the Atlantic to pick up the
latest information. The size of the US, and the
ambition of its people, made it fertile
ground for the iron road, and it was
perhaps inevitable that the new nation
would soon boast more miles of track
than the rest of the world put together. In
fact, the US would end up, at the peak of
the railroad boom in 1916, with more than
250,000 miles (400,000km) of line, by far
the biggest rail network the world
has ever seen.
COLONEL JOHN STEVENS

Inventor and lawyer John Stevens
saw the early commercial
potential of the railroads over
the waterways of the US.
T H E F I R ST A M ER ICA N R A I LROA DS 33
NORT H A M ER ICA N R A I LROA DS TO 18 6 0
Major city CANADA

City/town
Main line
National HALIFAX
boundary
MONTREÁL
BOSTON
TORONTO
St. Paul Albany
Hartford
DETROIT NEW YORK
CLEVELAND Trenton
CHICAGO PHILADELPHIA
Des Moines Baltimore
COLUMBUS
Lincoln WASHINGTON, DC
Denver Kansas City INDIANAPOLIS Richmond
St. Louis
Raleigh
Nashville
Oklahoma MEMPHIS Columbia

City Atlanta
DALLAS Jackson
Montgomery
JACKSONVILLE
Austin NEW ORLEANS

HOUSTON Tampa
San
MEXICO Antonio
Until the advent of the railroads, transportation in the US had been

difficult and slow. There were a few canals, but these iced up in winter.
The roads were very poor, owned by turnpike trusts that were unable
to maintain them properly as the tolls that were collected were
insufficient. Steamboats were the best form of transportation, but
they only gave access to certain parts of the country. The first
American railroad pioneer was Colonel John Stevens, a successful
steamboat designer and operator who was obviously rather taken
with the railroads since he wrote a pamphlet entitled Documents Tending
to prove the Superior Advantages of Rail-ways and Steam-Carriages over Canal
Navigation. As early as 1815, he obtained the first railroad charter for
permission to construct a line linking the Delaware river near
Trenton with the Raritan river in New Jersey, though in the event it
was never built—no investors came forward to finance the plan,
which was far ahead of its time. Undeterred, in 1825 Stevens designed
and built a steam locomotive, which ran on a circular track on a
narrow-gauge line at his estate.
Stevens and his two sons were involved in a number of other early
projects, notably the Philadelphia and Columbia line, which was built
to link the port of Philadelphia with Columbia on the Susquehanna
river to give merchants in Philadelphia access to Harrisburg and
Western Pennsylvania. They also founded the Camden and Amboy
Railroad, which ran from Camden, across the Delaware river from
Philadelphia, to Amboy, on the New Jersey shore opposite New York.
Initially, all these lines were horse-drawn, but inevitably, given the
distances involved, locomotive traction was considered—and for
that, British technology was needed. John Stevens’ son Robert
traveled to Britain and brought back a locomotive, John Bull, which
was built in the Stephenson Works. It arrived in parts and was
assembled by Isaac Dripps, an engineer who fitted pilot wheels at the
front to help guide the locomotive around the sharper bends on
the American railroad, and who was also credited with inventing the
“cowcatcher”—in reality a cow killer that pushed away cattle or deer
that had roamed onto the line, invariably fatally.
Building lines in the US in the early 19th century was by no
means easy. First, the promoters had to obtain a charter from the
state government, then they had to persuade investors, who were
often local people, to support the plan, and finally they had to find
sufficient workers to build the line as there was often a shortage of
labor. There was one key advantage compared with other countries.
Once a charter was obtained, the railroad company had “eminent
domain”—the right to take over any land required for the line’s
construction. Sometimes, though, the law was difficult to apply in
“The introduction of so powerful

an agent as steam to a carriage on
wheels will make a great change
in the situation of man”
THOMAS JEFFERSON, 1802
AN EARLY SUCCESS
The pioneering John Bull locomotive served for
over 30 years. It is the oldest working self-
propelled vehicle in the world.
practice. When the Erie Railroad was being constructed across

upstate New York, it was planned to cross Native American land.
The local tribe demanded $10,000 (in modern terms, around
$300,000, or £185,000) for the right of way. Appalled, the railroad
works manager blustered that the land was no good for anything
else apart from growing corn or potatoes. The local chief responded:
“It pretty good for railroad,” and got the money.
Most of the early railroad development was stimulated by
competition between the great cities of the eastern US, such as
Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. Each wanted to obtain
cheap access to the Midwest, where towns were growing rapidly,
creating an important market for produce. Baltimore proved to be the
most adventurous in promoting a railroad stretching deep into
the hinterland. The Baltimore and Ohio was the most significant of
these early schemes, being the first attempt to build a rail link between
an Atlantic port and the Ohio River, and so reaching the Midwest.
As with so many of these early lines, the promoters of the Baltimore
and Ohio were unsure about whether to use horses or steam
locomotives to haul the trains. Given that they wanted the line to
reach the town of Wheeling, nearly 400 miles (650km) from Baltimore,
it is extraordinary that they even considered using equine power, but
they arranged a competition between the hay eater and the coal
burner. A locomotive builder, Peter Cooper, had built a little engine
nicknamed Tom Thumb for the line, and it proceeded to impress the
promoters with a test run on the initial 13 miles (21km) of track that
had been completed, reaching an exhilarating 18mph (29kph). On the

run back toward Baltimore, Cooper foolishly agreed to race his
locomotive against a powerful grey horse. The animal soon took the
lead, thanks to its faster acceleration, but was then overtaken by the
steady little engine when Cooper opened the safety valve to provide
extra power. However, he overreached himself: after the locomotive
had gained a significant lead, the belt that drove its pulley snapped,
and the engine eased to a halt. The equine victory proved Pyrrhic,
however, as Cooper had done enough to persuade the promoters that
steam haulage, rather than horsepower, was the only way to make
the line viable. Although work started in 1828, and trains started
operating on part of the line two years later, it was not until 1853 that
the tracks reached Wheeling on the Ohio River owing to legal,
financial, and technical difficulties.
THE RACE BETWEEN OLD AND NEW

The Tom Thumb’s race against a horse became the stuff of
railroad legend. The locomotive was the first American
steam engine to run on a commercial railroad.
Further south, there was a far longer pioneering line, which was
completed much more quickly and used American technology. The
Charleston and Hamburg was an attempt to revive Charleston’s foreign
exports, which had gone into decline, and its local merchants hoped to
secure the trade of the rich cotton-growing area in the region. They
chose steam power from the outset, and the first engine, the Best Friend
of Charleston, built at the West Point Foundry in New York, pulled its first
train in December 1830. Unfortunately, a couple of months later, the
pioneering locomotive suffered an untimely demise when an
inexperienced fireman, annoyed at the sound made by the escape of
steam from its safety valve, sat on the offending piece of machinery—
which caused the boiler to explode, killing the fireman and scalding
the driver. Despite this mishap, the line was complete by 1833, and at
136 miles (219km), it was, for a time, the longest in the world.
American railroads differed from their European counterparts in
several respects. The key difference was one of scale, not just in the
extent of their reach, as they gradually extended further and further
west, but also in the size of the trains and locomotives themselves.
RAILROAD COACH
This replica of one of
the earliest Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad
coaches shows how
they were little more
than stage-coach
carriages placed
on railroad trucks.
FRONT BACK
B&O CENTENARY MEDAL, 1827-1927

This medal was issued to commemorate 100 years
of the history of one of America’s oldest railroads,
the Baltimore and Ohio. It depicts the famous early
locomotive Tom Thumb.
Their characteristically huge, bulbous chimneys—needed to contain

the sparks that might otherwise set fire to the countryside—were far
taller than their European equivalents, for the American lines had
few bridges or tunnels. Consequently, even today American trains
are almost 3ft (1m) taller than those in Europe, enabling them to
carry much greater loads. Overall, US railroads were bigger in every
sense than those across the Atlantic. They covered greater distances,
and were longer and heavier because they used stronger and larger
locomotives, all of which gave them a distinctive style (see pp.40–41).
The efforts to cut the costs of the new lines were successful, and
US railroads were far cheaper to build than their European equivalents,
but as a result, they were also less reliable and slower. Some aspects of
the railroads were, however, better from the start. Locomotives, for
example, were fitted with cabs for the crew, a “luxury” that was
necessitated by the rigors of the US climate, but which did not become
universal elsewhere until much later. Right from the start, too,
passengers traveled in carriages that were open plan, rather than in
individual compartments like those in Europe. These were necessary
because traveling longer distances meant that travelers required ready
access to conveniences, a facility that was not available on most
European trains until well into the second half of the 19th century.
These early lines were successful and mostly profitable, which

attracted a wave of investment into the new industry. By 1837, at least
200 railroads were being promoted. Many of these were unrealistic or
promoted by crooks intent on cheating potential investors, but many
plans were still completed, and by the end of the decade 2,750 miles
(4,425km) of railroad were in operation—a remarkable rate of
progress. The spur for most of these lines was freight, particularly
coal and minerals, but increasing numbers of passengers also flocked
to the trains. Soon, the short lines were followed by long trunk
railroads such as the Erie and the Pennsylvania lines, linking the
Eastern Seaboard with the Midwest. Later, in the second half of the
19th century, the transcontinentals brought the railroads to the West.
Before long, every town wanted to be connected to the railroad
network as it was considered vital for their prosperity. Prominent
local citizens would band together and form a company to obtain a
charter, often investing their own money. A mere 20 years later, at
the outbreak of the Civil War (see pp.60–65), there were nearly 30,000
miles (48,280km) of railroad in the US.
The railroads, in fact, grew symbiotically with the US economy,
transforming the nation from a predominantly agricultural
country into the industrial powerhouse of the world, all within a
few decades. It is impossible to know whether the tracks spread so
quickly because of the rapid growth in wealth, or whether it was the
other way around, but there is no doubt that the US thrived because
of the growing railroad system and that the railroads welded this
vast nation together (see also pp.120–27).
The Early Years of

American Steam
Starting with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1828, the growth of the US
railroad network enabled the Industrial Revolution to take hold, and opened
up the west coast to exploration and colonization. American locomotive
design engineers produced some innovative designs, including geared
locomotives and the first rack railroad (see pp.108–109).
BALTIMORE AND OHIO GRASSHOPPER BALTIMORE AND OHIO GRASSHOPPER

NO.2: ATLANTIC (1832) NO.8: JOHN HANCOCK (1836)
Named because its long connecting rods The John Hancock was an improved model of
and vertical cylinders gave it an insect-like the Grasshopper class, featuring a covered
appearance when moving, the Grasshopper cab and dual-powered axles. It was used
Atlantic was the first US-designed locomotive continuously on the Baltimore and Ohio
to see commercial service on American soil. Railroad from 1836 until 1892.
Engine weighs
90,700lb (41,140kg)
Engine delivers
10,350lb (4694kg)
of tractive effort
BALTIMORE AND OHIO NO.57: MEMNON (1848)

One of the oldest surviving freight trains in the
US, the Memnon was designed to transport coal. Its
hauling power was aided by eight driving wheels, the
central pair of which are “blind” (lacking flanges) to 60in- (152cm-)
enable the train to better negotiate curves in the line. diameter drivers
T H E E A R LY Y E A R S O F A M E R IC A N S T E A M 41
CUMBERLAND VALLEY RAILROAD SHAY NO.1: LEETONIA (1906)

NO.13: PIONEER (1851) The Leetonia, one of engineer Ephraim Shay’s
The Pioneer was a lightweight locomotive with only geared locomotives, used toothed driveshafts
one pair of driving wheels. It was used to haul up driven by three vertical cylinders to power all 12
to three passenger cars, and is pictured here in the of its wheels, making it ideal for hauling lumber
livery of its retirement in 1901. at low speeds on steep grades and tight curves.
MOORE-KEPPEL AND READING COMPANY NO.1251 (1918)

COMPANY CLIMAX NO.4 (1913) Built using parts from older locomotives,
Similar to the Shays, the Climax-class No.1251 was a switching engine with
geared engines were used by lumber six driving wheels. Its “saddletank”
Conical
companies. A cylinder on either side of smokestack design meant that no tender was
the boiler powered eight wheels via a required—water was carried in
centrally mounted transmission. a tank on top of the boiler.
Boiler runs at
a pressure BALTIMORE AND OHIO NO.147:
of 75psi
Front THATCHER PERKINS (1863)
driver was Named after its designer, the
originally company’s Master of Machinery,
flangeless Thatcher Perkins was rushed into service
to meet the demands of the Civil
War. Its six driving wheels and four
leading wheels were designed to
cope with the steep tracks in the
Appalachian Mountains.
19 × 26in
(48 × 66cm)
cylinders
Europe Takes to
the Rails
A S BRITAIN WAS PIONEERING THE RAILROADS, the cafés of

Paris were abuzz with news of the recent developments—but
not everyone was enthusiastic. Just as railroad opponents in Britain
had warned that it might be impossible to breathe when traveling at
more than around 30mph (50kph), or that cows would stop producing
milk because of the noise of the railroad, in France and the rest of
Europe, too, there were eminent doubters of this new technology.
Indeed, the French habit of philosophizing over major issues meant
that Parisian intellectuals discussed the pros and cons of the new
railroads in great detail—the writer Edmond de Goncourt warned
that when traveling on the railroad, “one was so jolted about that it
was quite impossible to collect one’s thoughts.”
However, despite the naysayers, the major European countries—

particularly France, Belgium, and the German Confederation—were
now scrambling to construct their own lines. The economic advantages
of doing so were obvious, but there were political reasons too—
railroads were not only vital assets in war, they could help
bind nations together. At first, Europe was dependent
on Britain both for technology and drivers, but
many countries soon became independent,
notably France, whose early efforts were close
behind Britain’s. In 1823, during a brief revival of
the French monarchy, Louis XVIII signed an Act
that permitted the construction of France’s first
railroad. The 14-mile (23-km) track ran between
St.-Étienne and Andrézieux in the Massif
Central and was built to carry coal from the
MARC SEGUIN
French inventor Marc Seguin (1786–1875)
pioneered the multitube boiler for steam
engines. He also developed the first
suspension bridge in Europe.
EU ROP E TA K E S TO T H E R A I L S 43
mines to the Loire for shipment to the rest of the country. The line
opened in 1827 and, although horse-drawn, it was an instant success.
As a result, extensions were added, and by 1832 the line, which now
used locomotives and carried passengers, stretched to the major city of
Lyon. The elaborate French cars were an improvement on the rather
more austere British trains and were divided into compartments, an
arrangement that soon became standard across Europe.
France’s equivalent of George Stephenson (see pp.22–29) was Marc
Seguin, a scientist and inventor who had in fact advised Stephenson on
how to improve the boilers of his locomotives. He produced two
locomotives for the extended St.-Étienne–Lyon railroad, each featuring
a multitube boiler (see pp.30–31) and a mechanical fan to deliver oxygen
to the fire. Later, in another case of Anglo-French cooperation, Robert
Stephenson built locomotives designed by Seguin. The lengthy debate
over the advantages and disadvantages of railroad construction slowed
the pace of development in France, so there were only 350 miles (560km)
of track by 1840, compared with 2,000 miles (3,200km) in Britain.
The cause of the railroad promoters was not helped when the
world’s first major rail disaster occurred between Versailles and Paris,
in May 1842. The train, returning from Versailles, was so heavily
laden with vacationers who had been watching the celebrations for
the king’s fête that it required two locomotives to haul it. The leading
engine suffered a broken axle—a relatively commonplace event in
the early days of railroads—and then derailed, along with three
passenger cars, which quickly burst into flames. The death toll was at
least 50, and may have been as many as 200; people couldn’t escape
because they were locked in and many bodies were consumed by the
inferno. As a result, the French authorities stopped locking passengers
into their cars, although the practice continued elsewhere,
contributing to the high death toll of the 1889 Armagh disaster, the
worst in Irish history (see pp.139).
Many other countries around Europe joined the Railway Age in

the 1830s, and the state was usually much more directly involved
than in Britain, where the government had remained aloof.
Nowhere was this more true than in Belgium, a new country carved
out of the Netherlands in 1830 and anxious to demonstrate its
independence. The railroads were an ideal way of doing so, since
building a railroad system was thought to stimulate a sense of
national identity. Consequently, the country’s first king, Leopold I,

approved the design of a whole network, and in 1834 building
started on the first line. This crossed the entire country from
Antwerp in the north to Mons in the west, and into Prussia via
Aachen in the east—a total of 154 miles (248km), a very ambitious
plan at that time. Together with an Ostend–Liege line forming an
east–west axis, Belgium quickly created a fully planned national
railroad system—the first of its kind in the world. Inevitably, George
Stephenson was involved, his company providing the first three
locomotives and he himself traveling incognito in 1835 on the first
train carrying the royal party. When the train broke down,
Stephenson went to the engine to help fix the problem, and was
knighted by the king for his pains. The support of the government
gave Belgium a lead in railroad development, and by 1843 most of
the heart of Belgium’s railroad network—which forms a “cross”
shape centered on Brussels—had been built, giving the heavily
industrialized country the densest network in the world.
Germany’s first railroad also opened in 1835, doing so in Bavaria,

where King Ludwig approved a steam-hauled line that ran the 4 miles
(6.5km) between Nuremberg and Fürth. Unlike most of the inaugural
lines, this was built mainly for passengers, as it relieved traffic on the
busiest highway in Bavaria between the two towns. The congestion
was the result of peculiar local circumstances. For centuries, the
Nuremberg authorities had forbidden laborers and foreigners to live
in the town, so they had to commute from Fürth, which had become
a dormitory town, presaging a use for the railroad that remains
commonplace today. Saxony, another important German state,
followed Bavaria’s lead, building Germany’s first major railroad,
linking Leipzig with Dresden. Saxony was the industrial heartland of
Germany, similar in character to
NUMBER OF LOCOMOTIVES the northwest of England, where
IN GERMANY BY 1880 the pioneering Liverpool and
Manchester line had been built
(see pp.25–29). More than 200
9,400 factories had sprung up in the

region, and local industrialists,
realizing that a railroad was
essential to carry the minerals
THE FIRST GERMAN RAILROAD

This contemporary painting shows the departure
of the locomotive Adler from Nuremberg in 1835.
The Adler was the first commercial locomotive in
use in Germany and was in service until the 1850s.
and ore needed by the factories, quickly raised the money to build the
65-mile (105-km) line, which was built remarkably swiftly thanks to
the use of British technology and personnel.
The railroads were particularly important for Germany as a
means of uniting the country. As early as 1817, economist and
visionary thinker Frederick List had understood the importance of
the railroads for Germany. He argued that a nation could prosper
only through trade and industry, and that a fast, efficient rail network
could carry food and industrial products throughout the country.
His theory was borne out. Customs duties between states were
soon scrapped as impractical, and within a generation of the first rail
line being completed, Germany’s railroad system had helped it
become a powerful unified state.
Like the Nuremberg–Fürth line, the first line in Holland, another
relatively early starter, was also built for passengers rather than
freight. The Holland Iron Railway between Amsterdam and
Haarlem opened in 1839 and reached Rotterdam eight years later. It
was extremely successful, killing off the competing coach and

barge traffic that had previously dominated the route between
the country’s two main cities. Holland, though, did not have the
centrally planned scheme of its Belgian neighbor and so never
developed such an intensive network.
The Belgian, German, and Dutch railroads were all steam-
hauled, but the idea that railroads could be operated successfully by
horses still lingered. In Austria, remarkably, the early network was
entirely horse-drawn, and grew to an extensive size. It included the
world’s longest horse-drawn railroad—a 90-mile (145-km) line
linking Linz in Upper Austria with Budweis in Bohemia (home of
the world-renowned beer, now in the Czech Republic). The horse-
drawn system was later extended further to the salt works at the
Upper Austrian health resort of Gmunden, and by 1836 it had
reached an impressive 170 miles (274km). Only then did the
Austrians replace horses with steam engines.
The railroads of both Italy and Russia began as royal initiatives,

albeit for the private purposes of connecting royal palaces. In Italy,
the King of the Two Sicilies, the portly Ferdinand II, fancied
connecting his main palace in Naples to his other residence on the
bay of Naples at Portici with a 5-mile (8-km) railroad line, which
was completed in October 1839. The idea had been recommended to
him by a Frenchman, Armand Bayard de la Vingtrie, who was keen
to make money from railroad plans. The first section of the line was
built quickly and proved to be immensely popular, carrying
up to 1,000 people per day. Oddly, the king himself eschewed
traveling on the inaugural journey, perhaps because he was aware
of the risks of train travel.
In Russia, Tsar Nicholas I built the first railroad line between
his main residence in St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo, the
enormous royal residence favored by Catherine the Great. He was
advised by an Austrian engineer, Franz Anton von Gerstner, who
THE RAILROADS COME TO ITALY

This 1839 painting by Salvatore Fergola depicts the
inaugural train leaving Portici station in Naples, Italy.
The line was Italy’s first railroad, and today forms part
of the Naples–Salerno line.
was keen to bring Russia into the railroad fold, and had sought
to build a far more ambitious line between St. Petersburg and
Moscow. Initially, however, only the Tsarskoe Selo line was
commissioned, and opened in 1837 with the first train, carrying
eight full passenger cars, taking a mere 28 minutes to reach
Tsarskoe Selo—an impressive average speed of almost 30mph
(50kph). The following year, the line was extended by 16 miles
(26km) to Pavlosk, a small holiday resort complete with buffets,
concerts, and a ballroom to entertain the St. Petersburg crowds on
their day trips. To attract the crowds, the railroad subsidised the
public entertainment at Pavlovsk, which is described in Dostoevsky’s
The Idiot as “one of the fashionable summer resorts near St.
Petersburg.” At first, the line was hauled by horses and various
locomotives imported from Britain and Belgium, but before long
the animals, exhausted from pulling the heavy trains, were put
out to grass and steam locomotives were introduced. The line was
a great success, with people flocking to the railroad both out of
curiosity and the desire to sample the attractions. More than
725,000 people traveled on the line in its first year, an average of
THE LEGACY OF TSAR NICHOLAS I

The St. Petersburg–Moscow line was Russia’s first
major railroad. Wary officials warned the tsar—
wrongly, as it turned out—that allowing people to
travel on the line would result in an uprising.
“Railway! A magical aura already

surrounds the word; it is a
synonym for civilization,
progress, and fraternity”
PIERRE LAROUSSE, 1867
2,000 per day. The 400-mile (640-km) long St. Petersburg–Moscow

line was completed in 1851, becoming one of the longest and most
impressive trunk routes in the world at the time.
Most countries in Europe adopted the 4ft 8½-in (1,435-mm) gauge
devised by Stephenson (see p.25), and this proved vitally important
in ensuring that a continental network was created, with trains
passing through borders relatively easily—although customs and
technical factors relating to signaling and driver training usually
meant delays at the frontier. Russia and Spain were exceptions—
both used a 5-ft (1½-m) gauge for fear of invasion from hostile
neighbors, reckoning that making trains change gauge would prove
a useful defensive barrier.
Traveling on these early lines was not always made easy, either by
the regimes of the day or the railroad companies. Governments were
suspicious of their citizens’ desire to travel, and the companies
were diligent in collecting fares. On the Leipzig–Dresden line, for
example, there were no advance ticket sales and access to the station
was allowed only a quarter of an hour before the train left—a practice
that persists in remote parts of Europe even today. Passengers
were required to purchase a return ticket and children under 12 were
banned. In Russia, there was also an extraordinary amount of
bureaucracy involved in taking a train. Passengers had to obtain an
internal passport before traveling, and then go to their local police
station to obtain permission for the journey. Even today, Russians have
to show their internal passport before buying a ticket for a long-distance
journey. Nevertheless, despite the bureaucracy and the technical
problems incurred on many pioneering lines, all these early railroads
proved popular and successful, spurring the rapid spread of rail travel
throughout Europe and to many other parts of the world.
Western European Railroads

In the mid-1830s, railroad technology spread from its
birthplace in Britain to continental Europe. Belgium
enthusiastically adopted steam locomotion as a means
to cement its fledgling nationhood. France stifled the iron
road with bureaucracy (see box, opposite), while the
German states used the railroads to further the case
for national unification. The lines spread in the ensuing SWEDEN
decades until Europe was crisscrossed with a vast web
of railroads. Spain and Portugal, however, chose to use NORWAY
different gauges from the rest of the continent. This map
shows modern Europe’s main lines. OSLO
STOCKHOLM
GLASGOW EDINBURGH
EIRE
DUBLIN DENMARK
UNITED
KINGDOM
COPENHAGEN
LONDON AMSTERDAM
HAMBURG
BRUSSELS
ATLANTIC BELGIUM
GERMANY BERLIN
POLAND
FRANKFURT
OCEAN PARIS
LUXEMBURG
PRAGUE
FRANCE VIENNA
BAY OF
AUSTRIA
BISCAY SWITZERLAND BUDAPEST
LYON MILAN HUNGARY
SLOVENIA
TURIN ZARGREB
BOSNIA
PORTUGAL SARAJEVO
MARSEILLE CROATIA
LISBON MADRID BARCELONA
SPAIN ROME ITALY
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
W E ST ER N EU ROPE A N R A I LROA DS 51
A SLOW START FOR FR A NCE

Given its large landmass and ready supply of raw materials, it is
perhaps surprising that France was one of Europe’s laggards in the
early days of railroad construction (see pp.42–43). Legislation to
permit the laying of rails in France was passed in 1842, but growth
was hindered by a high degree of government intervention:
tracks and infrastructure were built by the state, while only the
locomotives and rolling stock were supplied by railroad companies.
FINLAND
THE CONTINENT’S
FIRST LINE
HELSINKI BELGIUM In 1835, the very first railroad in
continental Europe was built
BALTIC in Belgium. The line ran about
SEA ESTONIA Antwerp 16 miles (27km) from Brussels
RUSSIA to the city of Mechelen, which
LATVIA
Mechelen brought about the rise of
metalworking industries in the
Brussels
town. Many new European lines
LITHUANIA used British expertise in their
construction, since Britain had
a decade’s head start on rivals.
BELORUSSIA
WARSAW
UKRAINE
MOLDOVA
ROMANIA
BUCHAREST
BELGRADE BLACK SEA
SERBIA SOFIA
BULGARIA
SKOPJE K EY
MACEDONIA
ISTANBUL Major city
ALBANIA
Main line
TURKEY
GREECE National
ATHENS boundary
Railroad Mania
T HE SUCCESS OF THE FIRST RAILROADS stimulated

enormous interest from potential investors and promoters of
new lines across the world. There was a tendency for people to try to
jump on the bandwagon, creating periods of railroad mania, which
occurred in nearly every country that developed a network.
Unfortunately, not all of these promoters were honest, and some had
the sole intention of trying to make people part with their money.
Oddly, the first mania happened before a single line was completed.
In 1824–25, during the run-up to the opening of the Stockton and
Darlington Railway (see pp.24–25), entrepreneurs around Britain put
forward ideas for other lines, and prospectuses for around 70 were
published—a remarkable number, given that they were still an
unproven technology. However, a downturn in the economy following
a poor harvest in 1825 and a spate of banking failures soon soured the
optimism, and almost all of these schemes were quietly forgotten. The
success of the Liverpool and Manchester line (see pp.25–29) prompted
another spate of railroad promotion in the mid-1830s, but it was the
huge surge in applications for new lines from 1844 onward that led to
the use of the term “railroad mania.” The phenomenon recalled
previous promotional fevers such as the South Sea Bubble of 1719–20
and the canal mania of 1791–94, and foreshadowed more recent
frenzies such as the dot-com boom of the 1990s.
In Britain, by the mid-1840s, railroad construction was established
as a legitimate and profitable business, and the healthy economic
conditions were ripe for a major boom. The usual method for raising
capital was to organize local public meetings at which investors
would buy “scrip”—vouchers that could later be exchanged for future
shares—for a small deposit in the proposed company. Having raised
part of the capital, the promoters would then go to Parliament for
approval of their proposal. There had been something of an economic
slump in the early 1840s, but as the economy recovered there was an
upsurge in railroad promotion. Railroads were seen as a method of
getting rich quickly, and from 1844 to 1847, British parliamentary
approval was obtained for more than 8,000 miles (12,800km) of
line—nearly five times the amount that had already been laid, and
a large proportion of Britain’s current rail network of 9,790 miles
R A I LROA D M A N I A 53
(15,750km). At the time, building a railroad was a relatively simple

task, provided the terrain was favorable—no more difficult than
opening a local store or erecting a row of houses. Once permission
was obtained, it was a matter of creating a narrow permanent right
of way, laying the track, and putting in the odd raised wooden
platform at stations. There was none of the complexity of today’s
technically sophisticated railroads.
The rapidity with which the mania took hold was astonishing. In
1843, only 100 miles (160km) of new line were approved by the British
Parliament, but over the following three years the figures were
respectively around 800 miles (1,200km), nearly 3,000 miles (4,800km)
and an astonishing 4,500 miles (7,200km), as 272 acts were granted. The
scale of this boom can be judged by the fact that it represented a
theoretical amount of £700m worth of capital investment—ten times
“THE RAILROAD JUGGERNAUT OF 1845”

This cartoon depicts the ruthless business of
railroad mania with vultures circling overhead,
crocodiles wearing lawyers’ wigs, and the devil
perched on a locomotive called Speculation.
Britain’s annual exports at the time. However, the boom collapsed even
faster than it grew. The economy slumped again in 1847, and as a result,
only 17 miles (27km) of new line were approved by 1849, but an
astonishing two thirds of the mileage approved thus far was eventually
completed within a few years, and even some of the failed projects were
revived in the smaller booms of 1852–53 and the 1860s.
Although most of the projects, even the failed ones, were genuine
attempts at building a railroad, some of them were blatantly
fraudulent, while others were based on the belief that the expansion
would last forever. This was the how the biggest fraudster of the
period, George Hudson, created a massive empire, which inevitably
collapsed when the bubble burst. A strange-looking fellow, who one
biographer describes as having “a cannon-ball of a head set upon his
bulky shoulders, the formality of a neck having been disposed of,”
Hudson was full of energy and had a fondness for the good life—
perhaps the typical profile of a fraudster. He did, in fact, succeed in
building several railroads, including the core of the
Midland Railway, which was one of the most extensive
lines in Britain. He had some other good ideas, too, such
as establishing a ticket clearing house through which
railroad companies reimbursed each other for
running trains on each other’s tracks. As he grew
in confidence, however, he used the money he
raised for new schemes to pay dividends on
previous projects—what is now called a Ponzi
scheme. His accounting practices had, in fact,
been so dubious that on his demise it was
impossible to find out where all the money had
gone. He had become rich, as one wag put it, “by
keeping everything but his accounts.” His career, so
glittering that he was elected Lord Mayor of York
and later an MP, came to an abrupt end in 1849 when
his dishonesty was exposed, after which he vanished
into obscurity.
THE INFAMOUS GEORGE HUDSON

Railroad promoter, entrepreneur, and fraudster
George Hudson created a business empire that
forever changed the face of railroad development.
“This big swollen gambler…

deserved a coalshaft from his
brother mortals”
THOMAS CARLYLE, PHILOSOPHER AND WRITER, ON GEORGE HUDSON
Switzerland underwent a period of railroad mania in the 1850s,

helped by Alfred Escher, a powerful Swiss businessman and politician,
and a keen supporter of the railroads. He had observed the growth of
railroads in other countries, and feared that Switzerland was missing
out on the economic prosperity offered by a rail network and would
become “the sad face of Europe’s backwater.” In 1852, he helped push
through a law allowing private companies to build and run railroads.
This launched a frenzy of construction by competing companies—
joined by Escher himself, who founded Swiss Northeastern Railway
and enjoyed great success. Over the following decades, the Swiss rail
network extended across the country, including the ambitious
Gotthard Railway in the 1870s (see pp.105–106).
In France, a law passed in 1865 to encourage railroad construction in
remote areas led to a period of rapid railroad expansion. At the time,
France’s railroads were controlled by six large companies, and the idea
was to encourage new entrants on to the network to ensure better
coverage of rural areas where the six were reluctant to go. The law
allowed local authorities to sponsor these lines, and speculators piled in,
seeing the possibility of making money out of the grants being offered,
despite the fact that most of these lines would never be viable. Within
ten years, nearly 3,000 miles (4,800km) of remote lines had been built,
many with a narrow gauge to reduce costs. However, few of them made
money and they soon had to be rescued by the state, forming the core of
what later became the French nationalized railroad system, SNCF.
In Italy, too, it was the government that stimulated a period of rapid
expansion. Creating a national rail network was seen as essential after
the unification of Italy in 1861, and the state sponsored a rapid expansion
through a concession system. However, most of the companies that
built the lines had insufficient capital and got into financial difficulties
when the lines, which were poorly constructed, failed to attract enough
passengers. The state inevitably took over and nationalized the
railroads, which resulted in many investors losing money.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, it was the US that suffered the biggest bout of

“railroad fever,” as they called it. There were, in fact, sporadic boom
periods of railroad construction throughout the latter part of the
19th century, as humorously described by the historian Stewart
H. Holbrook, who related the story of a fictional town called Brownsville:
First some up and coming individual, or simply a fanatical dreamer, said

forcibly that his home town Brownsville needed a steam railroad… the
idea grew and blossomed and burgeoned and even soared meanwhile
taking on all of the beautiful hues of the sky in the Land of Opportunity.
It also dripped with gold, gold for all of Brownsville, soon to be a mighty
metropolis, teeming with commerce.
… and so on, until an application was made to the state for permission
to build the Brownsville Railroad. This type of scene was enacted
many times over across the US during every bout of railroad fever.
The US has more than its share of crooks in its railroad history. A
group of “robber barons” emerged from the early railroad companies,
often using dishonest methods of speculation to gain control of
profitable lines. It was a time of wild risks and gambles. In one famous
incident—a takeover battle for the Erie Railroad—three railroad
barons, led by Jay Gould, holed up in a hotel in New Jersey with several
million dollars in cash, protected by armed guards to evade the
jurisdiction of the New York courts, which had found in favor of their
rival, Cornelius Vanderbilt. (Gould and his associates did eventually
win the battle for the Erie Railroad – see pp.241–42). Such events, while
not commonplace, were part and parcel of the colorful period of
railroad speculation in the US.
The final bout of speculative building in the US was in the early
20th century, and involved a series of tramways called “electric
interurbans.” These were a hybrid of trains and trams that connected
towns up to 50 miles (80km) apart with cheaply built single lines
sited next to existing highways. There was a remarkable period of
expansion of these lines from just 2,000 miles (3,200km) at the turn
of the century—by 1906 there were 9,000 miles (14,400km), and by the
outbreak of World War I, 15,000 miles (24,000km). By then, it was
possible to travel all the way from Wisconsin to New York using a
series of interurbans. It was a cheap ride, costing 10 cents for the
journey, but it was slow, for the interurbans averaged around 20mph
“NORD 2-3-0”
A French locomotive leaves a depot in Boulogne.
France’s national rail system, the SNCF, was founded to
rescue the struggling private railroad lines following a
surge in development. It still operates today.
(32kph) at best. Sadly, according to one historian, “the interurbans

were a rare example of an industry that never enjoyed a prolonged
period of prosperity,” and most investors lost all their money. The
demise of the interurbans was swift because they were inherently
unprofitable, serving sparsely populated areas and facing competition
from the growing use of motor vehicles. Already at the start of World
War I, systems were closing and they were all but wiped out by the
1930s, when their vehicles and tracks needed renewing and there was
no money for such investment.
All the manias across the world left their mark. Many investors
lost their shirts, but many of the lines were built and a good proportion
of those survive today. As with other industries, the manias had
their roots in genuine need, and many of today’s lines worldwide
owe their existence to these excesses.
Wheels and Trucks

The wheels of a locomotive are mounted on a chassis known
as a truck (see box, below) and are designed to keep the engine
aligned with the tracks. Each wheel tapers slightly from the inside
outward, which helps to steer the train around curves (see panel,
opposite), and is fitted with a projecting rim or “flange” on the
inside edge. Ordinarily this should not touch the track, and is a
safety feature to prevent the train from derailing. Wheel sets—two
wheels joined by an axle—are variously sized and perform subtly
different functions: large driving wheels are powered by the
pistons of the locomotive, while smaller, unpowered leading and
trailing wheel sets support the weight of the engine and enable
the train to pass through junctions and bends in the line.
THE IRON GIANT
Trucks A steam engine is lowered
onto its truck, with large
Each leading and trailing wheel set is driving wheels and
mounted on a frame beneath the car. The smaller leading wheels
strength and rigidity of the structure, or visible. As well as being
“truck,” enables the wheel sets to resist strong enough to carry
torsional forces when the train turns. heavy engines, train
Most trucks fix wheel sets in place in an wheels and trucks were
inflexible frame, but “steerable” trucks engineered to withstand
allow the axles to rotate laterally around immense rotational and
a pivot between the two wheel sets, torsional forces.
increasing the stability of the train around
bends. Modern trucks also house the
train’s braking and suspension systems.
Each wheel set consists

of two wheels connected
by an axle
Axles may rotate

laterally for steering
GERMAN RAILROAD TRUCK,

C. LATE 19TH CENTURY
W H EEL S AN D TRUCKS 59
How it works
The flanged wheel was invented in 1789 by
English engineer William Jessop. The raised
rim on the inner wheel edge prevents
derailment and does not touch the rail
during normal running, unless the track is
poorly maintained. The conical edges of the
train wheels allow the wheel sets to slide
across the heads (tops) of the rails, enabling
the train to follow curves. Engineers
observed that the characteristic side-to-side
swaying action of a train in motion was due
to its tapered wheel sets wobbling up and
down the railheads in order to “hunt” for
equilibrium. They termed this movement
“hunting oscillation.”
Conical wheel Flanges do

edges slide not touch
across railhead the rails
Railhead
Wheel set
TOP VIEW
NEGOTIATING CURVES
On a curved track, the train’s outer wheels have
to travel slightly further. To compensate, the
wheel set slides across the railhead, allowing
the outer wheels to use the larger radius of their
inner edge. The inside wheels meanwhile slide
onto the smaller radius of their outer edge. This
action allows the train to lean into the bend,
much like a cyclist leaning into a corner.
Point of contact
with rail during
straight running Wheel set tilts
as train leans
into the bend
Outside wheel
slides up head
onto larger
radius Inside wheel
slides down
Railhead head onto
smaller radius
SIDE VIEW
The American Civil War
B OTH GOVERNMENTS AND MILITARY commanders soon

appreciated the potential of the railroads for warfare. Shortly after
its opening in 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (see p.25–
29) was used to carry a regiment of troops from Manchester to the
docks in Liverpool en route to quell a rebellion in Ireland. The 31-mile
(50-km) journey took just over two hours, rather than the two days it
would have taken by foot, and the troops arrived in a much fresher
state. Around this time, revolutionary fervor was brewing in Europe,
and by the late 1840s, rulers across the continent were using the
railroads to help crush these revolts. The first major movement of
troops by rail took place in 1846, when a contingent of 14,500 Prussian
soldiers was sent to put down the Krakow rebellion of Polish nationalists
against their Austrian rulers. The Prussians rapidly suppressed the
uprising, with considerable bloodshed, after covering the 200-mile
(340-km) journey in just two days. Then, two years later, Tsar Nicholas
I of Russia, the most reactionary of the mid-19th-century monarchs,
sent 30,000 troops on the newly built Warsaw–Vienna railroad to help
his ally, Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, to put down another
nationalist rebellion—this time in Hungary. Again, the result was a
defeat for the revolutionaries, with much loss of life.
After this, the scale of troop movements around Europe increased.
In the winter of 1850, Austria used the railroads to send a 75,000-strong
army, along with 8,000 horses and untold equipment, from Vienna to
Bohemia. Due to poor weather and the fact that trains traveled along
a single line, the move took longer than expected—26 days for a mere
150-mile (240-km) journey – demonstrating that an enormous
amount of planning was still needed to use the railroads effectively.
Three years later, the French organized a massive movement of
troops during the Crimean War, in what is now Ukraine. Most of the
army of 400,000 men despatched to fight in the Crimea traveled to the
Mediterranean seaports on the railroad being built between Paris and
Marseilles. Although the line was not finished, troops were able to
use long sections of it, greatly improving their journey. In fact, it was
during the Crimean War that the first railroad line intended
specifically for military purposes was built. This was the work of the
British, who fought alongside the French, and who had struggled to
T H E A M E R I C A N C I V I L WA R 61
bring men and supplies up to Sevastopol, which they were besieging,

from the port of Balaklava 8 miles (13km) away. The hilly road was
little more than a dirt track, and a bottleneck soon built up in the
port. To relieve it, a group of “navvies” (see pp.84–89) was sent from
Britain to build a line between the port and the camp outside
Sevastopol. They were a wild bunch, causing mayhem on their
journey by getting drunk and trying to catch apes in Gibraltar, but
they were very effective builders. The Grand Crimean Central
Railway—an overblown name for a short, narrow-gauge railroad
powered partly by horses and partly by steam engines—was built
remarkably fast (just seven weeks) in 1855. It proved to be of enormous
value, enabling troops and provisions, including heavy guns, to be
hauled up the hill to support the assault on Sevastopol. The railroad
made it possible to bring an unprecedented number of guns to bear
on the town, which eventually succumbed under the barrage,
effectively ending the war.
It was during the American Civil War, however, that railroads came
of age as strategic assets. The conflict had been brewing for a long time,
and had its roots in the differences between the northern and southern
states. The North was industrializing and developing its economy on
the basis of manufacturing, but the South remained primarily
agricultural (cotton was its principal export) and depended on slave
WAR ON THE RAILS

This newspaper sketch shows the capture of
a train near Gunpowder Ridge, on July 11, 1864,
during the invasion of Maryland.
DERAILED CIVIL WAR LOCOMOTIVE

Soldiers survey the aftermath of an attack in 1864.
Both the deployment and destruction of railroads
played a crucial role in the American Civil War.
labor. The trigger for the war was the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln
as president in 1861. Lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery to new
states; the southern states, fearing the complete abolition of slavery,
seceded from the Union in the spring of 1861, thus starting the war.
The Civil War was a bloody affair, claiming the lives of 620,000 soldiers.
The battles between the Southern Confederates and the Northern
Federal Army were fought on an unprecedented scale. Throughout
history, even wars that raged over long periods typically featured only a
handful of battles. However, during the four years of the War Between
the States, a remarkable 10,000 military encounters took place, of which
nearly 400 were significant enough to be considered full-scale battles—
which means a battle was fought every four days. Moreover, the war was
fought over an area even bigger than Europe, a vast territory that was
only made accessible by the railroads.
By the outbreak of the war, US railroads extended over more than

30,000 miles (48,000km). The lines covered most of the eastern states
and much of the Midwest, so both troops and matériel could be carried
rapidly around the country. Both sides understood the importance of
the railroads, but the North made better use of them. Even before the
war started, Lincoln ensured that the key railroads were taken under
government control and that military traffic was given priority. The
outcome of the first major land battle of the war—at Bull Run, Virginia,
a small river just 20 miles (32km) south of Washington, DC—was
determined by the clever use of the railroads by the Confederates. The
battle started as an attempt by the Federal Army to bring the war to a
rapid close by capturing Richmond, the Confederate capital. The
Federal Army attacked the enemy alongside Bull Run, and initially
gained the upper hand. However, they found themselves defeated by a
counter-attack, made possible by the quick arrival of Confederate
reinforcements via rail from the Shenandoah Valley in the west. This
was an important lesson for both sides, and from then on most of the
war’s major battles took place at or near railroad junctions or stations.
The Federal Army launched the Peninsular Campaign—another
effort to capture Richmond—in March the following year, and
brought “the war’s wizard of railroading” into action. This was
Herman Haupt, a brilliant engineer whose background made him
the ideal man to harness the railroads for wartime use: he had
graduated from West Point, the US Army training college, but then
became a professor of mathematics and engineering, and had been
appointed superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad, one of
America’s most important lines.
Haupt established two main principles regarding the use of
railroads in war. Firstly, the military should not interfere with the
operation of services, since it was vital to keep to reliable railroad
schedules. Secondly, it was crucial to ensure that empty freight cars
were returned to their place of origin and not used as warehouses (or
even offices by senior personnel), because running out of freight cars
in wartime could mean the difference
between success or failure in battle. THE WESTERN AND
Haupt’s first task in the Peninsular ATLANTIC RAILROAD
Campaign was to repair the DELIVERED AN ARMY OF
Richmond, Fredericksburg, and
Potomac Railroad, a 15-mile (24-km)
vital artery that connected the two
capitals, Richmond, Virginia, and
Washington, DC. The Confederates
100,000
had wrecked the line in order to MEN TO GENERAL
damage the Federal Army’s capability, SHERMAN’S FORCES
and they had done a particularly AT ATLANTA
“Haupt has built a bridge…

and there is nothing in it but
cornstalks and beanpoles”
ABRAHAM LINCOLN, MAY 28, 1862
thorough job, twisting the rails so that they could not be used again
and burning down bridges. Several miles of track had been put out of
commission, but in response, Haupt performed what seemed to be a
miracle. He rebuilt the railroad within two weeks, making it possible
for a full complement of up to 20 trains per day to run on the line. His
greatest achievement was to erect a 400-ft (120-m) trestle bridge high
over the Potomac Creek in just nine days, even though he had only
unskilled workers and poor, unseasoned wood at his disposal. This
spectacular achievement was lauded by Lincoln when he visited the
site: “I have seen the most remarkable structure that human eyes ever
rested upon.” Perhaps unsurprisingly, however, the president only
viewed the bridge from the embankment and did not venture over it.
Haupt’s talents included devising methods to destroy the enemy’s
railroads, a task that proved to be just as important as repairing
existing lines and building new ones. Thanks to Haupt’s principles,
troop movements by rail were carried out without any major mishaps.
The greatest movement of the war was when 23,000 men were needed
to defend Tennessee after the defeat of the Federal Army at the Battle
of Chickamauga in Georgia. The defeated army had retreated to
Chattanooga, a rail hub in neighboring Tennessee, and needed
reinforcements. In an extraordinary operation, involving seven
railroads and two ferry trips, the reserve troops traveled 1,200 miles
(1,950km) in just two weeks to relieve the siege of Chattanooga. The
town then became a crucial stage for the Federal Army’s invasion of
the South, which ended the war. That final push was also dependent
on the railroads. When General Sherman left Chattanooga on his
march to Atlanta, which signaled the end of the war, he relied on the
railroad for supplies. He wrote after the war, with military precision:
That single stem of railroad [The Western and Atlantic] supplied

an army of 100,000 men and 32,000 horses for the period of 196 days
from May 1 to November 19 1864. To have delivered that amount of
THE GENERAL
Buster Keaton heroically lifts a railroad tie out
of the path of his engine in hot pursuit of hijacked
locomotive The General in the film of the same name.
forage and food by ordinary wagons would have required 36,800 wagons,
of six mules each… a simple impossibility in such roads as existed
in that region.
A famous episode of the war—immortalized in The General, a 1926 Buster

Keaton film—occurred on the railroads. A group of 21 Federal soldiers
led by James Andrews penetrated enemy lines at Marietta, Georgia, and
stole a train hauled by a locomotive called The General, with the intention
of wrecking the Western and Atlantic Railroad. A Southern conductor,
William Fuller, furious at the hijacking of his train, pursued the hijackers,
first on foot, and then on a gandy dancers’ handcart (a device used for
track maintenance). He eventually commandeered a locomotive and,
evading the obstacles placed on the line by Andrews, caught up with The
General when it ran out of fuel. The raiders fled into the countryside, but
seven, including Andrews, were caught and hanged, while the rest
escaped to the North. This, however, was a side-show. The lesson of the
war was clear. Railroads were now invaluable military assets, and so
they remained for 100 years or more.
Signals in the Steam Age

In the earliest days of the railroads, trains ran up and down
single tracks and signaling was not a necessity. As rail traffic
and speeds increased, however, train safety grew to be a major
concern and signaling became essential to prevent collisions.
Hand and arm signals were soon replaced by flags and
lanterns, and in 1832 the first elevated wayside
signaling was introduced. By the 1860s,
mechanical signals were in general use,
but no single system was agreed upon.
Semaphore signals were widely adopted
in Britain, but were not standardized
until 1923, while ball signals were common
in the US. Color light signals came into
use from the 1950s.
HAND AND ARM SIGNALS

The earliest form of signaling—hand and
arm signs—was still in use in the 1930s. Here
a brakeman for the Southern Pacific Railroad
uses hand signals to hitch cars on a freight
train in 1937.
Signaling tokens
A chief safety mechanism in train signaling
outside the US is the block system, which
allows only one train to enter each “block”
of a railroad at a time. In the 19th century,
tokens provided evidence that a block was
free. In the original “staff and ticket” system,
the tower operator gave the locomotive
engineer a token or “staff” to allow entry to
a block. At the other end, the staff was given
up, allowing a train to proceed in the
opposite direction. If a second train followed
the first along the same “block,” both carried
written permission or a “ticket.” Later
systems were operated by means of tokens
inserted in a trackside machine.
BALL TOKENS, INDIA
SIGNA L S I N T H E S T E A M AGE 67
Early signal systems

As railroad networks became more
complex, rail operators largely relied on
scheduling to maintain train distances and
prevent accidents. However, signals
indicating if a line or “block” (section of the
line) was clear were crucial in case of
timetable alteration or train breakdown
(the last three signals below are UK-specific).
BALL SIGNAL (1837)

The most common signal on
the early US railroads, it gave
rise to the term “highball:”
when the ball was raised, it
was safe to proceed, although
this was later reversed.
SEMAPHORE (1840)
Widespread after the 1850s,
and still in use today, it
signaled “danger” in the
horizontal position and “all
clear” when angled either
up or down.
WOOD’S CROSSBAR
SIGNAL (1840)
Crossbar signals, in use from
the 1830s, indicated on/off
(stop/go) with a revolving
wooden board. When the
crossbar was swung parallel
to the line it signaled clear.
REVOLVING DISC
SIGNAL (1840)
The disc revolved vertically
to signal stop and go, much
like semaphore signals. In
keeping with most signals of
the time, the disc was made
of wood and painted red.
DOUBLE DISC SIGNAL (1846)

Like the crossbar, the double
disc rotated on a wooden or
steel signal post. Both were
shortlived, however, as the
“clear” signal was hard for
locomotive engineer to see.
Heroic Failures
T HE RAILROADS AS WE KNOW THEM were not the only form

of rail transportation that was considered in the latter half of the
19th century. Indeed, before the current system became standard,
tracks, cars, and engines were combined in all kinds of ways that may
seem eccentric today. Some of these ideas might have been successful
had they received the proper attention, but others were patently ill-
considered and bound to fail.
Perhaps the most spectacular failure was the “atmospheric
railway”—a brainchild of British engineer Isambard Kingdom
Brunel, the otherwise unimpeachable builder of the Great Western
Railway, the SS Great Britain (the first propeller-driven iron ship),
and the Royal Albert Bridge. His contention was that locomotives
were uneconomical because they had to haul themselves as well as
their trains (which made uphill travel even harder), and his
solution was to remove the engine altogether, creating a train that
was propelled by a series of stationary steam engines located along
BRUNEL’S FOLLY
A section of Brunel’s atmospheric railroad
lies reconstructed in the town of Didcot,
Oxfordshire. The vacuum tube in the center
contained a piston that hauled the trains.
H E ROIC FA I LU R E S 69
the track. At the time, locomotives were far from popular—people

were afraid of suffocating in tunnels and of sparks setting fire to
farmland—so alternatives were welcomed, and in 1844 an Act of
Parliament sanctioned Brunel’s idea. It was to be tested on the
South Devon Railway, a broad-gauge line that Brunel would build
from Exeter to Plymouth.
The atmospheric system worked by means of a tube that ran down
the center of the track. This functioned like the cylinder of a steam
engine (see pp.30–31), having a piston inside it that was connected to the
first car of the train (the “piston car”). The connecting arm of the piston
traveled through a slit in the top of the tube, which was kept airtight
with a long strip of leather and metal components that opened and
closed as the piston passed through it. A steam engine at the side of the
track created a vacuum inside the tube, which forced the piston forward,
hauling the train along with it. The train then traveled some 3 miles
(4.8km) until it reached a second engine, which created a new vacuum
and propelled the train to the next engine, and so on. A total of
11 engine houses were completed for the line, which took it as far as
Newton, about 26 miles (42km) short of the planned terminus at
Plymouth—the final series of engine houses was never built.
The railroad opened in September 1847 on the 11-mile (18-km)
stretch of line between Exeter and Teignmouth, and at first it
seemed to work well. According to Brunel’s biographer:
the new method of traction was universally approved of. The motion
of the train, relieved of the impulsive action of the locomotive, as singularly
smooth and agreeable; and passengers were freed from the annoyance of
coke dust and the sulfurous smell from the engine chimney.
It was also fast, with a top speed of 68mph (109kph) and an

average of around half that, which were both remarkable speeds
for trains of the period.
There were, however, difficulties from the outset. Setting off
from a station proved to be a problem, as the train often needed a
helping tow from horses or an extra engine attached to a tow rope.
The system was also inflexible, as the pipework prevented the trains
from being routed from one track to another. The biggest problem,
however, was maintaining the vacuum itself. The leather flaps
that sealed the pipe failed to be airtight, and there were rumors that
they were gnawed by rats. Likewise the metallic parts of the seal
were corroded by salt from sea-spray. Consequently, the atmospheric
system was abandoned after a mere eight months, and the
equipment replaced by conventional steam locomotives.
It was an expensive failure. The shareholders of the South Devon
Railway were almost £400,000 (in modern terms, $55 million) poorer
as a result, which was a huge sum at the time. Much of the money
had been spent on the elaborate engine houses, which Brunel had
constructed in an Italianate style, their large chimneys disguised as
campaniles. Each house cost several times the price of a conventional
locomotive, and they were so elegant that one, at Starcross, was later
used as a chapel. Also, installing atmospheric traction had been nine
times more expensive than the original estimate, and the static
engines burned far more coal than expected, costing twice that of
conventional traction.
Brunel’s failure was particularly painful since it happened in public,

on a commercial railroad, but there were plenty of other disasters
that happened in relative privacy. In 1824, for example, British
inventor W.F. Snowden designed a train that eschewed the use of
steam power altogether. It had a single line of wheels that ran in a
U-shaped rail flanked by a pair of flat rails that kept the cars upright.
To propel the train, “industrious laborers” in the lead car literally
cranked a wheel that was connected to a gear that engaged with the
toothed edge of one of the rails—thus providing human traction,
and requiring superhuman stamina on the part of the laborers. Not
surprisingly, the idea was never taken up, despite a pamphlet
published in 1834 extolling its virtues. However, Snowden’s system
did highlight a problem that is common to all railroads—that wheels
“He had so much faith in

his being able to improve it
that he shut his eyes to the
consequences of failure”
DANIEL GOOCH, BRUNEL’S COLLEAGUE, ON THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY
slip in damp conditions and on inclines—a problem Snowden solved

by keeping the gear locked in the track. A related idea was to have a
rack and pinion (see pp.108–109) in the center of the railway to aid
traction, and such devices are still used on mountain lines today.
Rope or cable railroads were another attempt at solving the
problem of how to haul trains. Again, as with atmospheric railroads,
the idea was to have stationary engines placed along the track, but
this time for hauling cables attached to the trains. On the Canterbury
and Whitstable line in Britain, which opened in May 1830, trains were
hauled by rope for 4 miles (6.5km) out of Canterbury and then by
locomotive for the remaining two miles. Several other lines used
cables to deal with inclines. Nearly two miles of the Düsseldorf–
Elberfield line in Germany was cable-hauled, as was part of the
Brussels–Liège line in Belgium, and the Denniston Incline on the
South Island of New Zealand. The Liverpool and Manchester (see
pp.25–29) had cables for the first part of the line out of Liverpool
station, as did the London and Birmingham for the incline between
Euston station and Camden Town. One of London’s first railroads,
the London and Blackwall, was cable-drawn for its entire 3½-mile
(6-km) length. Cables were complicated to operate, however, and as
locomotives became more powerful, most of these systems were
phased out (although the German one remained in operation until
1927). A cable system was even proposed for the first deep subway line
built on the London Underground—the City and South London line,
completed in 1890—but given its length of nearly 5 miles (8km),
planners decided to use the new technology of electric power instead.
Monorails were another great hope of the railroad pioneers, and

although a few were constructed—and indeed some still operate—they
have never overcome the basic problems of being expensive to build, and
being inflexible due to the structural requirements of their rails. The
first patent for a vehicle designed to run on a single rail was granted in
November 1821 to British civil engineer Henry Robinson Palmer, who
described it as “a single line of rail, supported at such height from the
ground as to allow the center of gravity of the carriages to be below
the upper surface of the rail.” The vehicles straddled the rail, rather like
pannier baskets on a mule, and were horse-drawn. The idea was to make
it easier to transport goods across worksites, and the first monorail was
built in the Deptford Dockyard, London, in 1824. The following year,
another line, the horse-drawn Cheshunt Railway, was built at a brick

factory in London. At its opening it carried passengers—an historic
moment, as it predated the world’s first passenger railroad, the Stockton
and Darlington (see pp.24–25), by three months. Monorails have since
resurfaced from time to time, but never with much success. A steam-
driven monorail was first demonstrated at the United States Centennial
Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and although a couple of versions
were built, neither lasted very long. The oldest monorail in the world is
the Wuppertal Suspension Railway in Germany, which opened in 1901
and still operates today, carrying 25 million passengers a year. In the
later 20th century, a number of monorails were built in urban areas
in Asia, including Tokyo in Japan and Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia.
ROPE AND STEAM

Propelled both by cables
powered by stationary steam
engines, and moving steam
locomotives, the Canterbury
and Whitstable Railway was
known locally as the “Crab
and Winkle” line.
Fanciful ideas for new transportation systems continued into

the 20th century. Perhaps the strangest of all was the balloon
railroad constructed near Salzburg in Austria in the early
1900s. This consisted of a large balloon tethered to a slide running
on a single rail up a mountainside. The hydrogen balloon
hovered some 33ft (10m) above the car, which could carry up
to ten passengers. Once loaded, the balloon was freed, pulling
up the car beneath it. To descend, the car’s tanks were filled
with water. Its inventor, Herr Balderauer, believed that his
system would replace the costlier funiculars that were being
built across the Alps (see pp.102–107), but perhaps unsurprisingly,
it failed to attract investors.
AN UNUSUAL SUCCESS
The German suspended railroad,
the Wuppertal Suspension
Railway, photographed in 1912.
It has run for over a century
and continues to operate today.
India: Dalhousie’s
Colonial Imperative
I NDIA WAS THE JEWEL IN BRITAIN’S CROWN during the

19th century, and its colonial rulers were eager to impose their
dominion over the subcontinent. The railroads were vital to this process
and were brought to India by the British East India Company—effectively
a commercial arm of the British government. The first Indian railroad,
which ran from the company settlement of Bombay, was commercial in
aim, prompted by events on the other side of the world: the American
cotton harvest had failed in 1846, and this spurred the cloth manufacturers
of Manchester to use India as an alternative source of cotton. However,
in order to ensure the steady supply needed to keep their factories
running, transportation to the Bombay port needed improving, and so
the cotton magnates pressed the British government to build a railroad.
Due to bureaucratic delays—it took months to receive a reply to a
letter sent from India to Britain—and indecision on the part of the
British rulers, work on the 21-mile (34-km) line between Bombay and
Thane, or Tana, did not start until 1850. It was an experiment to see if it
was possible to build railroads in the harsh climate of the Indian
subcontinent. The Thane line was not easy to construct. Now part of
Bombay’s busy suburban network, it originally went through difficult
territory, including a hill that had to be cut through and a marsh.
Nevertheless, it was completed in three years.
The opening of the line in April 1853 was a momentous affair, not
least because it was the first railroad in Asia. Unlike northwest
England, where railroads had originated, India was still a rural,
unindustrialized nation, and the sight of powerful locomotives
belching fire and steam impressed and frightened the local populace
in equal measure. People lined the tracks by the millions to watch the
14-passenger car train bearing a rich assortment of VIPs on its
inaugural journey, and many spilled onto the tracks, slowing the
progress of the train, which nevertheless managed the journey at an
average speed of 20mph (32kph)—a very creditable effort.
Another, more ambitious, project started simultaneously in Bengal,
in the northeast of India. This was a 121-mile (195-km) line stretching
from Howrah, on the western side of the Hooghly river, via nearby
I N DI A: DA L HOUS I E’ S COL ON I A L I M P E R AT I V E 77
Calcutta to the small town of Raniganj in the coalfields of Burdwan,

from which it had previously taken two seasons to cart the coal down
to a river for transportation to the rest of the country. Work on the line
started in 1851, but a couple of shipping mishaps delayed progress. First,
the passenger cars intended for the line were lost when the ship carrying
them sank at Sandheads on the Bengal coast, and then, astonishingly,
the locomotives for the line were sent to Australia instead of Calcutta
as a result of one of the most expensive clerical errors in history. The
locomotives eventually arrived in Calcutta—a year late—but, despite
these setbacks, the line, nearly six times longer than the Bombay–
Thane railroad, opened in February 1855.
The success of these two lines led to a rapid expansion of the
railroad system. Unlike in Britain, where the process was unplanned
and haphazard, the development of the rail network in India followed
a clear plan laid out by the colonial administration. In 1853, Lord
Dalhousie, the governor-general, set out a program for the
development of India’s trunk lines in a 216-page handwritten
memorandum. Dalhousie was a hard-working, capable administrator
who later claimed to have given India all the necessary “engines of
social improvement… Railways, uniform postage, and the Electric
Telegraph.” His “minute,” as he called the memorandum, set out the
justifications and guidelines for the railroads of India,
whose territory then included what is now Bangladesh
and Pakistan.
Dalhousie emphasized the economic benefits that
the railroads would bring. They would increase trade
between India and the mother country—Britain
importing cotton and India receiving manufactured
goods in return. Railroads would encourage
enterprise, increase production, facilitate the
LORD DALHOUSIE
Governor-General of India from
1847 to 1856, Lord Dalhousie
set out a visionary plan of
railroad building in India
that aimed to rival
the wonders of the
ancient world.
THE EAST INDIAN discovery of natural resources such as

RAILWAY COMPANY coal and minerals, and encourage
WAS ESTABLISHED overall economic development as
IN 1845 WITH A they were doing in Europe and the
CAPITAL OF United States, which were now both
three decades into the railroad age.
£4,000,000 However, the core of Dalhousie’s
argument was not commercial but
political. The British administrators
25,000
LABORERS DIED
and soldiers who ruled the country
were thinly spread, and railroads
would enable them to travel rapidly
to maintain control—an advantage
that was worth almost any price.
BUILDING THE For his part, Dalhousie was
WESTERN GHATS nothing if not a visionary. In his
RAILROAD minute, he wrote enthusiastically:
the complete permeation of these climes of the sun by a magnificent

system of railway communication would present a series of public
movements vastly surpassing in real grandeur the aqueducts of Rome, the
pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, the temples, palaces and
mausoleums of the great Moghul monuments.
An exaggeration, perhaps, but it gives an idea of the enormity of the

plan. Dalhousie’s blueprint was given urgency by a mutiny of the army’s
Indian soldiers that began in May 1857 and threatened colonial rule. The
mutiny—which began with soldiers refusing to bite on musket
cartridges covered with tallow made from either beef fat (offensive to
Hindus) or pork fat (offensive to Muslims)—had broken out in remote
parts of the country. The military realized that rather than bringing
vast numbers of British troops over to manage the Indian regiments, it
was cheaper to build railroad lines to ensure that troops could be
despatched at speed to deal with insurrections wherever they happened.
The mutiny halted work on railroad projects across India, but work
recommenced at a faster pace when peace was restored in June 1858.
The railroads, in other words, were a nakedly colonial project
that paid scant regard to the needs of the native population. The
British decided on the location of the lines and when they would be
built. They were designed to serve British interests and would later
be seen by nationalists such as Mahatma Gandhi as agents of
imperialism. The British government accepted Dalhousie’s plan and
the railroads were constructed to the pattern he had devised. Major
trunk routes radiated from the port cities and centers of colonial
administration, such as Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and further
lines connected other large towns and cities. It was, as one writer
suggests, a period of great “romance and excitement,” but it was also
a time of hardship, particularly for innumerable Indian workers,
thousands of whom died constructing the railroads. The country’s
diverse and rugged landscape also posed formidable challenges.
Bridges, for example, had to withstand far greater pressures than
those of Europe, because the monsoon rains made rivers swell to
enormous, and destructive, proportions.
COLONIAL RAIL
This plate taken from the Illustrated
London News shows the arrival of a
railroad locomotive in India in 1875.
By 1880, India had around 9,000 miles
(14,500km) of track.
The Western Ghats, a chain of mountains that run down much of the
western side of the subcontinent, proved to be an almost insuperable
barrier. Although not immensely high—a mere 8,840ft (2,695m)—
they rise sharply and ruggedly beyond the narrow coastal lowlands,
presenting what at the time was the most difficult section of railroad
terrain in the world. It took engineer James Berkley several years just
to survey the route, although the line was only 15 miles (24km) long.
When it was finished, the line featured two major inclines (see pp.204–
205)—the Bhore and the Thul Ghats—as well as numerous tunnels.
Berkley devised an ingenious way of overcoming the steep grade.
Instead of building a continuous track, he carved out a reversing
section at a bend near the summit, obviating the need for a stationary
engine to haul the trains uphill. It was a cheaper and neater solution
than a conventional route, and was imitated on several other
mountain lines, notably in Brazil and the Andes. The system involved
driving a train along a narrow line toward a precipice, so it required
nerves of steel on the part of the engineer, and indeed the passengers.
BHORE GHAT REVERSING INCLINE

The reversing station (see pp.204–205) on the Bhore Ghat
incline in the Western Ghats, seen here in 1880, was an
ingenious way of negotiating the Indian hills, although it
involved a hair-raising reverse toward a precipice.
“If we did not rush about from

place to place by railway, much
confusion would be obviated”
MAHATMA GANDHI, THE ESSENTIAL WRITINGS
To create the track bed for the Ghat line, whole sections of the mountain
had to be blasted and workers let down on ropes to drill into the
mountain face—a perilous process. On numerous occasions, the ropes
failed or slipped, sending workers down into a ravine from which their
bodies were never recovered. Illness, however, was the biggest killer.
Numerous killer diseases, including typhoid, malaria, smallpox, cholera,
and blackwater fever, took a high toll on the overworked and
undernourished workers, who died by the tens of thousands. The lives
of the Indian workers, or “coolies,” as they were known, were considered
cheap in Colonial India. As one government report tellingly reads:
The fine season of eight months [work except in tunnels halted during the
monsoon] is favourable for Indian railway operations, but on the other
hand, fatal epidemics, such as cholera and fever, often break out and the
labourers are generally of such feeble constitution, and so badly provided
with shelter and clothing, that they speedily succumb to those diseases
and the benefits of the fine weather are, thereby, temporarily lost.
As Anthony Burton, the author of a book on railroads and the British

Empire, observes: “the notion that lives—and the inconvenient loss
of working time—could be saved by providing proper shelter and
decent conditions does not seem to have been considered.”
The spread of the railroad in India came at a high cost, but it remained
a remarkable achievement, and Dalhousie’s plan was adhered to long
after his departure and death. His belief that the project would be bigger
than the construction of the pyramids was borne out. Within 25 years of
the opening of the Thane line, India had an extensive network of trunk
lines. By the turn of the century, there was a remarkable 25,000 miles
(40,000km) of track—a network that has survived to this day with few
closures, and which remains a key part of the infrastructure of a nation
in which a highway network was only developed late in the 20th century.
The Indian railroads have become synonymous with India itself.
Early Indian Railroads

Railroad construction took place at a rapid pace on
the Indian subcontinent from the 1850s onwards.
Following Dalhousie’s recommendation of a series
of arterial “trunk” routes to connect India’s major
cities, the first lines were built inland from the
regional hubs of Bombay on the west coast, Madras
in the south, and Calcutta in the east. Smaller
regional lines—built in an alarming variety of
gauges—fanned out from these main lines, and
by the early 20th century India boasted more than
25,000 miles (40,000km) of track. This map shows
the main rail network planned by Dalhousie and Jamnagar
Rajkot
built in the colonial era.
ARABIAN
SEA
K EY
Major city
INDIAN
City/town
Main line
OCEAN
National boundary
CROSSING THE RIVER

A steam locomotive is
floated across the Yamuna
River on a pontoon at
Kalpi, northern India, in
the late 1800s. The river
was later bridged, but
before and during this
contruction, workers had to
use improvised measures
such as this to transport
locomotives over the river.
E A R LY I N DI A N R A I L ROA D S 83
Amritsar
CH I NA
DELHI N E PA L
Bareilly BH U TA N
Darjeeling
Ajmer Agra Gauhati
Kanpur
Varanasi Patna
Allahabad
BA NGL A DE SH
Ahmadabad Bhopal Raniganj Dacca
Jabalpur Howrah Khulna

Ujjain Jamshedpur Chittagong
Baroda
I N DI A CALCUTTA
Surat
Thane Nagpur Cuttack
BOMBAY
Poona
W E STER N
Warangal Visakhapatnam
BAY OF
Hyderabad
Rajahmundry BENGAL
GH A
Belgaum
Hubli
TS
Mangalore MADRAS
BANGALORE
Coimbatore
Truchchirappalli
Madurai
Kankesanturai
Quilon
Kandy
Colombo
SR I L A N K A
The Nav vies: Digging,

Drinking, and Fighting
T HE MEN WHO BUILT THE RAILROADS were a tough bunch—

and they needed to be, as they had an arduous job, carried out in
remote areas and often in harsh conditions. They were also at the
cutting edge of technology, working in a new industry that had
developed its own machinery and working methods. It was a learning
process for all concerned, from the contractors and engineers to the
men who laid out the embankments and dug the tunnels. Astonishingly,
the tracks used by modern, high-speed trains would be quite
recognizable to the engineers who built the first lines. After a few early
experiments with granite ties and wooden rails, the basic design was
adopted almost everywhere in the world—iron (later steel) rails laid on
wooden ties, resting on stone aggregate or ballast (see pp.90–91).
For much of the 19th century, laying the tracks was very labor-
intensive. A surveyor drew an approximate line on a map after
walking the site, then thousands of workers were hired by a
contractor. The workers were called “navvies” because they were
thought to have the same skills as the navigators who built the canal
system a generation earlier. These navvies were proud of their name,
but by no means all the workers on the railroads qualified for it.
According to Terry Coleman, author of The Railway Navvies, the key
book on the history of the navvies, they “must never be confused
with the rabble of steady, common laborers whom they out-worked,
out-drank, out-rioted and despised.” The laborers came and went,
many returning to the farms at harvest time. If they stayed, however,
it took a year for laborers to qualify as navvies, who were considered
an elite class of worker. To be navvies, they had to work on all the
hard tasks, such as tunneling, excavating, and blasting, and not
simply shoveling earth; they had to live with the other navvies in
camps and follow the railroad as worksites moved along; and they
had to match the eating and drinking habits of their fellows—
consuming nearly 2lb (1kg) of beef and 9½ pints (4.5l) of beer a day.
The navvies came from all over Britain and adopted their own
particular dress code. According to Coleman, they favored “moleskin
trousers, double-canvas shirts, velveteen square-tailed coats, hobnail
T H E N AV V I E S : D I G G I N G , D R I N K I N G , A N D F I G H T I N G 85
NAVVIES USING A
BRICKMAKING
MACHINE
Although their
reputation as volatile,
hard-drinking fighters
was often deserved,
the navvies also
carried out long hours
of hard labor, and had
to put up with poor
working and living
conditions.
boots, gaudy handkerchiefs and white felt hats with the brims turned
up.” It was not really suitable garb for such hard, manual work, but it
demonstrated style. They were known by nicknames that ranged
from the eclectic “Bellerophon” or “Fisherman” to the more
common “Gipsy Joe” or “Fighting Jack.”
To some extent, the skills needed to build the railroads were tried
and tested. There were similarities with building canals and digging
out mines, but in terms of scale, perhaps only cathedral-building
compared—although cathedrals took centuries to complete, while
railroads took only a few years. The scale and extent of the earthworks
alone was unprecedented. The most visible features of the navvies’
trade were bridges and tunnels, but the vast majority of their work
consisted of moving enormous quantities of earth. Railroads require
relatively straight routes and gentle grades, so the land has to be
adapted before the track can be laid. Peter Lecount, an assistant
engineer on the London & Birmingham, calculated that building it
involved lifting 25,000 million cu feet (708 million cu m) of earth—a
greater task than the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza.
Occasionally, new techniques were deployed, such as laying
embankments through marshy land, or crossing large rivers with
bridges. Worksites commonly had hundreds of men attacking the
earth with their primitive tools and hauling the dirt away in
wheelbarrows, or by horse and cart on the flatter sections. As railroad
historian R.S. Joby recounts:
rough-looking gangers drive their butty gangs to ever greater feats of

earth-moving by threats, promises, and, at times, a well-timed kick for
the pay of the gang depends on the efforts of the team as a whole.
A great deal of gunpowder was used, the fuse-setters and navvies

crouching behind any available cover to shield themselves before
returning to prepare the next blast. Safety precautions were minimal
and risk-taking was considered manly. Not surprisingly, navvies often
died young. In the Kilsby Tunnel on the London & Birmingham,
three men were killed as they tried to jump, one after the other, over
the mouth of a shaft in a game of “follow my leader.” On the Great
Western, a man was told to stop cutting under a large overhang of
earth, but he ignored the warnings and was buried alive within
INTO THE DARK

Tunneling under Blackfriars Bridge, London, in the
1860s. In a life filled with risk and tough conditions,
working in tunnels was the epitome of both for the
navvies. Accidents were frequent.
minutes. Those who survived the numerous accidents—ranging

from unexpectedly large explosions to simple falls and collisions—
were soon worn out by the hard work and the excessive lifestyle. The
forty-year-olds looked fifty, and the rare sixty-year-olds looked
eighty. The sheer numbers of workers involved in railroad-building
was also colossal—far greater than in any previous industry. In
spring 1847, for example, 169,838 men were working on the railroads
in England and Wales, out of a total population of 16 million. Initially,
the companies employing these men were small, local concerns, but
large contractors soon emerged, employing thousands of navvies.
These contractors were powerful men such as Samuel Peto and
Thomas Brassey, who built railroads all over the world.
Not surprisingly, navvies were rarely welcome in the towns where
they were working. They caused a great deal of disruption, and
shopkeepers took advantage of the surge in demand to raise food
prices. As accommodation was scarce in the remote places where
lines were being built, the navvies slept in huts in filthy conditions,
sometimes sharing their quarters with pigs and attracting vermin.
They often shared beds—one man sleeping while the other worked—
and they were accompanied by a retinue of “many women but few
wives,” as one writer put it. As a result, disease was rife. Riots were not
uncommon, particularly on payday, or, as sometimes happened,
when the navvies had not been paid. In 1866, the village of Wiveliscombe
in Somerset, England, was terrorized by 70 navvies demanding beer
and bread after the local railroad company went bust. A local resident
of a Devon village described the chaos when the navvies found
themselves without work after the railroad was finished:
More than a hundred discharged on Monday, and a pretty row there was:
drunk altogether and fighting altogether, except one couple fought in
the meadow for an hour… the same night the villains stole all poor old
xxx’s fowls [and] there is not an egg to be got hereabouts.
Similar scenes were played out in other countries. The navvies may
have been wild, but they got the job done, so much so that British
men found work on many European railroads. In 1843, Thomas
Brassey, a contractor, was commissioned to build the line between
Rouen and Le Havre in northern France, and a local newspaperman
sent to observe construction was greatly impressed:
I think as fine a spectacle as any man could witness, who is accustomed

to look at work, is to see a cutting in full operation with about twenty
wagons being filled, every man at his post, and every man with his shirt
open, working in the heat of the day, the gangers looking about, and
everything going like clockwork. Such an exhibition of physical power
attracted many French gentlemen who came on to the cuttings at Paris
and Rouen, and looking at these English [actually many were Scottish
and Irish] gentlemen with astonishment said ‘Mon Dieu! Les Anglais, comme
ils travaillent!’ [My God! The English, how they work!]… It was a fine sight
to see the Englishmen that were there, with their muscular arms and
hands hairy and brown.
There were often labor shortages in the US, and men had to be
brought in from other countries to build the railroads. The
construction of the Erie Railroad in the late 1830s and early 1840s
coincided with a large influx of men from Ireland who were fleeing
the famine at home and were eager to work on the railroad.
Unfortunately, the men were from two different parts of Ireland—
Fardown and Cork—and the former took against the latter in a
dispute over lower wages. In the ensuing conflict, the Fardowners
set upon the Corkonians in a series of battles that lasted several
days. This culminated with the Fardowners cutting down the
rickety structures in which the Corkonians lived, bringing the roofs
down on top of them. It is a wonder that they found enough time to
build the railroad at all, but construction was unaffected.
In the 1860s, the Central Pacific company was building the line
eastward from California on the first transcontinental (see pp.120–27).
However, the construction was desperately undermanned, due to both
a lack of immigrants and the competition from the lucrative mining
industry. One of the line’s promoters
TYPICAL AMOUNT OF named Charles Crocker hit upon
EARTH MOVED BY ONE the idea of taking on Chinese
NAVVY IN A DAY workers, but had to overcome
resistance from his worksite
4,400 LB (2,000 ) KG
managers who thought that these
“tiny rice-eaters” could not handle
such work. They were proved
wrong, however: the Chinese were
extremely good laborers and
RAILROADS ON THE STEPPES

Convicts build the Ussuri section of the
Trans-Siberian Railway in the far east of
Russia in the early 1900s.
accepted lower pay than their white counterparts, prompting Crocker

to organize the recruitment of thousands of men from China. Chinese
laborers also worked on the legendary South American railroads,
accompanied by the fearsome local workforce, the rotos (see pp.202–203).
In Russia, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in the
1890s (see pp.180–87) also meant that a lot of men had to be brought
in from afar. The line, which is still the longest in the world, required
huge numbers of workers and had 80,000 enrolled at its peak. The
local people, mostly tribesmen, were unwilling or unable to work,
and as the line progressed further east into the almost deserted steppe
the shortage of labor was acute. Convicts were drafted in, with 13,500
prisoners and exiles working on the line at the peak of its construction.
Laborers also had to be brought in not only from European Russia,
but from as far afield as Turkey, Persia, and Italy.
This conscription of workers continued throughout the 19th century,
after which mechanization reduced the need to mobilize such vast labor
forces. Until then, however, the railroads were the work of strong men
wielding primitive tools. Their legacy can still be seen, not only in
railroads that have since been modernized, but in the embankments
and cuttings that remain where lines have been closed. All over the
world, the landscape was transformed by their herculean labors.
The Track Structure

The track structure is comprised of track components (e.g., rail, ties,
fasteners, and joint bars) and trackbed structural components (ballast,
sub-ballast, and subgrade). In the early days of railroad construction,
temporary track was laid first so materials could be transported
quickly to the site. After the substructure was complete, the
permanent track was laid. The substructure of a track is called the
formation. Since a consistent grade is required in order for trains to
run smoothly, the ground is first prepared to form the subgrade. The
subgrade might also be covered by a layer of sand or stone called a
blanket before overlaying it with ballast. The gauge (distance apart)
and alignment of the rails are monitored to ensure that they remain
constant throughout straight sections and curves in the line.
LAYING THE TRACKS
Workers follow a track-renewal train as it places rails
on newly laid ties. Before the mid-1900s, workmen
carried out the process by hand. These bullhead rails
had the same profile on the head (top) and foot
(underside), allowing them to be inverted and reused
when the head wore out.
Track materials
Wooden rails were used for the pony-drawn wagonways of the 17th
century, but a more lasting material was required to support 19th
century steam engines. The cast-iron rails of the first railroads were
succeeded by sturdier wrought-iron rails in the 1820s, while steel—
which was stronger still—came into use in the 1850s. Crushed-stone
ballast is still the most common foundation material, but concrete
slabs, which are more stable and durable, are increasingly used.
TRACK STRUCTURE
Most railroad tracks consist of flat-bottom steel rails
fixed to wooden or concrete ties. The layer of ballast
beneath has the benefit of reducing noise from
rail traffic, but requires maintenance due to
displacement from the weight of passing trains.
Rails
Tie Track
Shoulder
cess BALLAST/SUB-BALLAST
Track
BLANKET (SAND, OPTIONAL) foundation
Formation
SUBGRADE (LOCAL MATERIALS
SUCH AS TOPSOIL)
GROUND LEVEL
T H E T R AC K S T RUC T U R E 91
Track gauges
The gauge of a track is the horizontal distance between the inside
faces of the two rails, and determines the axle width of trains that
can run upon it. A range of gauges was used when the railroads were
built in the 19th century, but standardization became necessary as
individual lines were connected to form national and international
networks. As such, standard or international gauge (4ft 8 ½in or
1,435mm) is used for around 60 percent of the world’s railroads.
COMMON GAUGES
4ft 8½in (1,435 mm) 3ft 6in (1,067 mm) 5ft 3in (1,600 mm)
4ft 114⁄5 in (1,520 mm) 5ft 6in (1,676 mm) 3ft 12⁄5 in (950 mm)
3ft 32⁄5 in (1,000 mm) 5ft 5⅔in (1,668mm) Other gauges
Cuban Sugar Railroads
F EW NATIONS REMAINED UNTOUCHED by the railroad

boom of the 19th century, and many were affected in remarkably
different ways. Cuba was the first country in Latin America to build
railroads, but their purpose was very different from those of the US and
Europe. Their chief role was to transport sugar—a crop that was grown
in vast plantations to satisfy the sweet teeth of the developed world—
and so they did little to help the general population. Cuba had become
a sugar economy somewhat by accident, after an increase in the price of
sugar in the late 18th century made its cultivation highly profitable.
Relying heavily on slave labor, the industry grew rapidly in the early
19th century, but transporting the cane to the mills was expensive
because of the island’s poor roads. Indeed, in the rainy season, from
May to November, the tracks became muddy and rivers flooded,
making movement almost impossible. What was needed was a railroad
to shift the cane swiftly and cheaply—from the plantations to the mills
for processing, and then on to the coast where it could be shipped
CUBAN SUGAR RAILROAD

Constructing the first Cuban railroad, between
Havana and Bejucal, involved a massive workforce
of slaves from the plantations and Irish
immigrant laborers.
CU BA N SUGA R R A I LROA DS 93
150 YEARS OF CUBAN RAIL

These commemorative stamps
were isued in 1987 to mark the
150th anniversary of the opening
of the first Cuban railroad line,
one of the earliest in the world.
abroad. Such a line was duly built, and the crop that was brought to
Cuba by Christopher Columbus in 1493 found its way back to Europe in
unprecedented amounts, making fortunes for Cuba’s sugar barons.
Throughout the 19th century, Cuba was a Spanish colony, but its
railroad opened long before that of its imperial master. Indeed, although
Cuba was undeveloped and wretchedly poor at the time, it was one of
the first countries in the world to build a railroad—by the time its first
line opened in 1837, only six other countries had railroads. In 1830, just
as the Liverpool and Manchester line was being completed in Britain
(see pp.25–29), leading plantation owners in Cuba set up a commission
to consider building a railroad network. In 1834, once a route had
been established and sufficient funds raised, work started on a 46-
mile (74-km) line between the capital, Havana, on the coast, and
Güines, inland on the Mayabeque River.
It was a grand and sophisticated operation. The first part of the
16-mile (26-km) route, from Havana to Bejucal, climbed to 320ft
(98m) above sea level, a very steep grade for a railroad at the time.
The line also had several bridges, the longest of which, across the
Almendares River, needed 200 supporting pillars. Moreover, unlike
many other early lines, the Cuban railroad was designed to have two
tracks right from the start. To supplement the thousands of slaves
owned by the railroad company, workers were brought in from
abroad to help construct the line. These were largely Irish immigrants
who had only recently reached the US, and men from the Canary
Islands, which was also under Spanish rule. The new arrivals did not
thrive. The Irish in particular suffered, being unused to the tropical
climate, which was at its worst during the rainy season. Badly fed
and poorly sheltered, large numbers of workers succumbed to the
effects of tropical diseases. Many of them also turned out to be
drunks and quickly found themselves in the filthy colonial jails,
where they soon perished. The survivors found that when their
contracts ended the railroad companies did not fulfil their promise
of returning them to the US, and they were left to wander the streets
of Havana, penniless and destitute. The Canary Islands immigrants
fared little better, even though they spoke Spanish. Their employers
considered them more likely to try to escape, so they were treated
like prisoners on the work sites. Forced to work up to 16 hours per
day, many of them died of exhaustion.
The project ran out of money, but new investors stepped in and
the first section of the Bejucal line was completed by 1837, just three
years after work had begun. The locomotives and engineers were
imported from England, and when the section to Güines opened
the following year, the railroad boomed. Although it was primarily
intended for freight, passengers flocked to the railroad too,
generating as much revenue as the sugar in the early years. There
were two trains a day in each direction—a 30-car freight train, and
a seven-car passenger train.
The success of the line prompted further railroad construction. The

first section of a second line—built to bring sugar, molasses, and rum
to the port of Cárdenas—was completed in 1840, after which the
system expanded rapidly. A decade after the first line opened, the area
around Havana was criss-crossed with lines connecting all the
neighboring districts, and the sugar industry boomed as a result. In
1846, Havana alone had 169 sugar mills producing more than 40,000
tons of sugar and 45,000 barrels of molasses each year. The railroads
serving these mills were highly profitable, but they were geared so
specifically toward the sugar industry that they provided little support
to other industries, or indeed to passengers. They were built purely to
help sugar merchants export their produce, and so were not treated as
commercial enterprises. Unlike
APPROXIMATE NUMBER in Europe and the US, where
OF AFRICAN SLAVES every railroad junction soon
TRANSPORTED TO CUBA became a bustling town, the
railroads did not stimulate
urban development in Cuba.
800,000 By 1852, nine companies had

built a total of 350 miles (565km)
of track, although the pace of
T H E CU BA N SUGAR R A I LROA DS
Almendares River
Pinar del Río

HAVANA
Bejucal Matanzas
Güines
Cárdenas
SANTA CLARA
Cienfuegos
Sancti Morón
Spíritus
Ciego
de Avila
CAMAGÜEY
Nuevitas
CUBA
Las Tunas
CARIBBEAN SEA
HOLGUÍN
Manzanillo
Bayamo
Major city
City/town
Main line SANTIAGO
DE CUBA
Guantanamo
growth slowed down due to a slump in world sugar prices and a

clampdown on slavery. However, sugar prices recovered,
stimulating a second boom in railroad construction. The Crimean
War of 1854–56 raised prices even higher—sugar was already a
global commodity, and the war diverted British shipping from
carrying sugar from Asia, creating a surge in demand. The sugar
barons found themselves with enormous amounts of cash, which
they used to invest in more and more railroads. Consequently, the
amount of track laid reached 800 miles (1,288km) in 1868, providing
this impoverished island in the Caribbean with one of the densest
railroad networks in the world. It was bettered only by a few major
European nations, and in fact had more miles of track per
inhabitant than any other country in the world—more, even, than
England, the mother of the railroad.
CUBAN SUGAR MILL

An American locomotive waits outside a
sugar boiling house in Cuba in 1857. Such
locomotives took sugar from the mills
to the ports for export.
By the late 19th century, the Cuban railroads had reached a remarkable
5,000 miles (8,000km) of track, half of which were standard-gauge
lines designed to shift sugar out of the plantations and sugar products
from the mills. The rest were mainly narrow-gauge tracks, often
crudely laid, for hauling cane on the plantations themselves.
Unfortunately, however, not only did the railroads fail to serve
passengers, they failed to stimulate the economy, for they remained
dependent on British and US technology: no Cuban supply industries
were ever established. If anything, the railroads had a rather damaging
effect on the wider economy—they exacerbated the differences
between the rich areas, which benefited greatly from their
construction, and those that were poor, which became even more
neglected. They were also concentrated in the affluent western half of
the island. Only a handful of lines were built in the east, where there
were few plantations. Crucially, the east–west line connecting the
two halves of the island was not built until the 20th century, because
it required a government subsidy, which was not forthcoming. As the
BEGGING IN HAVANA
At the height of its success as a sugar economy,
Cuba was awash with foreign laborers, many
of whom never returned home, and ended up
begging on the streets of Havana.
GREGG COMPANY RAILROAD CAR

Like most of Cuba’s railroad technology, this freight car, used
for transporting sugar cane, was imported from the US. Cuba
never developed its own train manufacturing industry.
authors of a study of the Cuban railroads argue: “the railroad

development of the first decades lacked the long-term perspective
that would permit the growth of a national grid.” In fact, the economic
effect of the railroads was quite perverse. By making the plantation
owners so rich, they helped perpetuate the slave system that might
otherwise have collapsed.
The railroads’ dependence on the sugar trade was ultimately their
undoing. They were profitable as long as sugar boomed, because there
was no other form of transportation. In the late 19th century,
however, another collapse in sugar prices rocked Cuba’s economy,
leading to the takeover of the railroads by British investors. Few lines
were found to be viable, so much of the network was shut down. By
the early 20th century, the remainder of Cuba’s railroads were entirely
owned by British and US companies. These monopolized the western
and eastern networks respectively, but the stagnation of Cuba’s sugar
industry drove the railroads into crisis. The spread of the motor car
and improvements in Cuba’s roads only deepened the railroads’
problems, which would only be solved when the network was
nationalized in the late 1950s.
The Spread of
the Railroads
TAHAO, NO. 20
V & T RAILROAD
STEAM, 1875
A s train travel increased and the benefits of rail links became
evident, it seemed that nothing could stop the spread of the iron
road. There was no obstacle—financial, geographic, or social—that
could not be overcome by the railroads. Soon mountains were being
crossed or tunneled under in territories as far apart as the Austro-
Hungarian Empire and India. Rivers were forded and houses
demolished to make way for stations in town centers. Even disease-
infested jungles were conquered, such as the swamps on the
Panamanian isthmus, although only at a terrible human cost. The
United States, with its vast western deserts, soon boasted not just one
transcontinental railroad, but four—and Canada laid three of its own.
Urban transportation, too, was revolutionized. London’s Metropolitan
Railway, the world’s first underground line, opened in 1863, and
became the blueprint for many such systems across the world.
Although trains were becoming commonplace, there was little
improvement in the quality of services—largely because the majority
of travelers had no other means of transportation, so their custom was
taken for granted. There were exceptions, of course—prestige services
such as those developed by George Pullman, who provided not only far
better meals, but comfortable overnight sleeper cars—but by and large
rail transportation offered few comforts. Nor was it entirely safe. At first,
trains were so few and so slow that collisions were unlikely, but as the
tracks filled up and trains traveled faster, accidents became inevitable.
The railroad companies soon became the dominant industry of
the day. They were larger than any other business, and by their very
nature operated across vast areas. Perhaps most enduringly, they liked
to demonstrate their importance by building huge stations that became
the cathedrals of the age—a source of pride to both the railroad
companies and the communities they served.
102 T H E SPR E A D OF T H E R A I LROA DS
Crossing the Alps
M ANY OF THE FIRST EUROPEAN RAILROADS ran from

cities to ports, so that goods could be transferred onto ships. As
the network developed, however, it hit a major hurdle in the heart of
the continent—the Alps. From the earliest days, the governments
promoting the railroads realized that this was an obstacle that would
have to be surmounted, but it posed the hardest challenge yet
encountered by railroad builders. Engineers had to develop new skills
and techniques, excavating tunnels far longer than any previously
cut and erecting bridges over deep, inaccessible ravines.
The first railroad to cross the Alps was the Semmering. It was built
over the Semmering Pass by the Austrian Empire to connect the
imperial capital, Vienna, with the Empire’s only seaport, Trieste (now in
Italy). A circuitous route via the Hungarian plains had been considered,
but the transalpine railroad’s main backer, Archduke John of Austria,
was determined to find a way over the mountains. This was a remarkable
challenge and it took a remarkable man to design and build it: Carl von
Ghega, an engineer with mountain-road-building experience who had
engineered the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway from Brno to
Breclav (both now in the Czech Republic). In 1842, Ghega was put in
charge of the entire Austrian railroad-building program. Believing that
an essential part of this program was a link between Austria
and the Adriatic, he traveled to the United States to learn
about railroad construction methods, and how they
might be applied to finding a way over the mountains.
He returned convinced that a railroad over the
Semmering was feasible.
The Semmering was a mountain pass that had been
used by travelers on foot and on horseback since the
Middle Ages. Although it was the lowest of the Alpine
crossings, and so remained open longer than others
in winter, the pass still rose to more than 3,000ft
CARL RITTER VON GHEGA

Born Carlo Ghega to Albanian parents in Venice, the
engineer was granted the title of Ritter (“knight”) in
1851 for the astonishing feat of building the Semmering
railroad, which many had thought impossible.
CROSSING TH E ALPS 103
T H E F I R ST R A I LROA D ACROS S T H E A L P S , 18 5 7
VIENNA
Major city
City/town
Main line Wiener Neustadt
National Semmering railroad
boundary Gloggnitz
Mürzzuschlag Semmering
AUSTRIA
Bruck an der Mur
Graz
HUNGARY
Maribor
SLOVENIA
CROATIA
LJUBLJANA
ITALY
TRIESTE
(900m) above sea level, and building a railroad across the range
required extraordinary ingenuity and innovation. The Austrian
Government backed the project because the revolutions that
swept across Europe in 1848 convinced the new Emperor Franz Joseph
of its necessity—not only to unite the ends of his disparate Empire
as they sought to fragment and affirm their national identities, but
also to create employment at a time of economic depression.
Establishing a connection from Vienna to the sea became both
politically and economically essential.
Ghega chose a route through the Alps that started at Gloggnitz in
Lower Austria and ran to Mürzzuschlag in Styria. As the crow flies,
these two towns are 13 miles (21km) apart, but the railroad covered twice
that distance with its curves and switchbacks, the track running across
curved viaducts that arched their way over broad valleys before entering
long tunnels. In all, the route required 14 tunnels, the longest of which
was 4,600ft (1,400m); 16 viaducts, several with two levels; and more than
100 curved stone bridges. Avalanche sheds were built to protect the line
from falling rock and snow on its perilous path along the mountainside.
Even with all these structures, the ascent still rose by grades of up to
1 in 40 (2.5 percent), very steep for the locomotives of the time; the
curves, too, were sharper than those on other lines. To overcome these
difficulties, Ghega also worked to develop engines that could handle
them. In 1851, he initiated a competition, similar to the Rainhill Trials 22
years earlier (see pp.27–28), to find the best locomotive. An engine called
Bavaria won, but when the line opened, it proved unable to haul heavy
loads up the steep inclines. A new engine, designed by Wilhelm Freiherr
von Engerth, a professor of engineering at Graz University, took its place.
All the construction work was carried out by hand, with the help of
gunpowder (the only explosive available at the time). The workforce,
which was made up of Germans, Czechs, and Italians, as well as
Austrians, was enormous—20,000 people at its peak. Perhaps inevitably,
accidents occurred during construction. In the worst single incident—a
rock fall in October 1850—14 men lost their lives, and in all, around 700
men died, many from diseases such as typhus and cholera. In one
astonishing near miss, the building of the railroad almost changed the
course of history. The young Otto von Bismarck, who later unified
THE SEMMERING RAILROAD

Traversing 26 miles (41km) of sheer drops and
previously impassable moutains, the Semmering
railroad represents an incredible feat of engineering.
Germany and became known as its Iron NUMBER OF WORKERS

Chancellor, represented his country at a THAT BUILT THE
line inspection. He was nearly killed
when a gangway over a ravine broke SEMMERING
beneath him—he survived by clinging,
cartoon-style, onto a ledge as he fell.
RAILROAD
The first freight train traveled over the
pass in October 1853 and passenger traffic
began the following July. By 1857, the all-
important connection between Vienna
20,000
and Trieste was complete. While the line NUMBER OF WORKERS
cost four times its original estimate, it NOW BUILDING THE
proved its worth as a vital trade link for
the Austrian Empire in what turned out GOTTHARD
to be its declining years. Moreover, the
railroad blended so well into the landscape
BASE TUNNEL
that it has today been designated a
UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the
double-layered viaducts singled out as a
particularly distinctive feature.
2,000
After the success of the Semmering, other routes were soon being
planned through the Alps. A route under the western Alps was proposed
in 1848, but the revolutions of that year and the Italian Wars of Unification
delayed its progress. Once Italy was unified in 1861, interest revived and a
plan was laid to build a line under Mont Cenis, connecting Bardonecchia
on the Italian side with Modane in Savoy, which had been annexed to
France in 1860 and, more widely, linking Milan and Turin in Italy with
Grenoble and Lyon in France.
Going over the Mont Cenis pass was considered out of the question
given that it reached a height of 6,827ft (2,081m). However, a temporary
rack railroad (see pp.108–109) capable of climbing steep grades, the Mont
Cenis Pass Railway, was opened alongside the pass road in 1868. The 50-
mile (80-km) line was used to speed up the carriage of mail between
Britain and India via the Italian port of Bari. Worked by British locomotive
engineers, it was the first ever rack railroad based on the Fell mountain
railway system, named for British railroad engineer John Barraclough
Fell. The system used a toothed third rail to propel the locomotive up
steep hills. However, it proved short-lived and was dismantled in 1871,
when the more efficient Fréjus Tunnel replaced it.
The 8½-mile (13.6-km) Fréjus Tunnel, built at a height of 4,000ft (1,200m),

was at the time of its construction the longest in the world. Initially,
tunneling techniques were still primitive: they involved drilling a hole
and placing explosive charges in it. Progress was slow at first. Five years
after work had started in 1857, less than 1 mile (2km) had been
completed. Then the engineer, Germano Sommeiller, invented a
pneumatic rock-boring machine, the pace increased and, with teams
working from both ends, the tunnel broke through on December 26,
1870. Thanks to a new method of determining the route known as
indirect triangulation, which involved teams of surveyors taking
bearings on many points on the mountain, the two ends of the tunnel
were less than 2ft (half a meter) out of direct alignment when they met
up. The Mont Cenis Railway—the first international railroad linked by
a tunnel at the frontier—opened for traffic in October 1871.
The second major tunnel under the Alps was the Gotthard Tunnel,
which was also immensely difficult to construct due to the geology of
the region. It took from 1871 to 1881 to build and, at 9½ miles (15km), was
slightly longer than the Fréjus Tunnel. Work was faster thanks to the use
of dynamite, invented by Alfred Nobel in 1867, but it still took an
outstanding man, the Swiss engineer Louis Favre, to work out a way of
getting through the mountain. Favre devised an innovative way to reach
the tunnel mouth, at an elevation of more than 3,600ft (1,100m). He
created tunnels that circled around at a gentle grade through the rock,
so that the route spirals up the mountain to reach a point above itself. At
Wassen, for example, passengers heading south can see a church spire
from below then, a few minutes later, they find themselves viewing it
from above. These loops add considerably to the journey time—the line
between Lucerne and Chiasso on the Swiss-Italian border is 140 miles
(225km) long, and around a fifth of the route is made up of loops.
Sadly, Favre did not live to see his creation completed. In 1879, he
suffered a heart attack—very likely brought on by the strain of the
project—during a tour of inspection of the tunnel, and died at
the age of 54. He was not the only one to die: more than 200 tunnel-
builders died in accidents—many drowned when drilling hit
underground streams, others were killed by rock falls and collisions
with the cars used to take out the stone.
After the Gotthard Tunnel opened in 1882, other rail routes
were soon carved through the Alps via tunnels including the Simplon,
which at 12 miles (19km) became the world’s longest when completed
CHAMONIX-MONTENVERS RAILROAD
Following the success of the first mountain
railroads, Alpine trains became popular for
tourism. The Montenvers rack railroad,
which opened in 1908, took tourists up to
France's largest glacier, the Mer de Glace.
in 1906, and the Lötschberg, which

opened just before the start of
World War I. The Swiss developed
electric locomotives to pull trains
through these tunnels, which
would otherwise have filled
dangerously with smoke from
steam engines (see pp.224–29).
Today, Switzerland is constructing

a series of ambitious railroad
tunnels through the Alps in order
to reduce road traffic over the mountains. The aim is to bypass the
old Gotthard Tunnel’s slow, winding route, which is already operating
at full capacity. To achieve this, the massive AlpTransit project aims
to increase rail capacity through these huge new tunnels. The
longest—indeed, it will be the longest in the world, surpassing the
14½-mile (23-km) Seikan Tunnel in Japan—will be the Gotthard Base
Tunnel. Due to open in 2016, it will have two tunnels, each 35½ miles
(57km) long. The new Gotthard rail link, consisting of the Zimmerberg
Base Tunnel (for which no completion date has been given) and the
Ceneri Base Tunnel (due to open in 2019), along with the Gotthard
Base Tunnel, will mean trains can cross the Alps by rail at just 1,805ft
(550m) above sea level. This lower elevation will make it possible to
create a high-speed link for passenger trains as well as for freight,
reducing the travel time between Zurich and Milan from the current
4 hours to 2½ hours. The AlpTransit project also includes the 22-mile
(35-km) Lötschberg Base Tunnel between the cantons of Bern and
Valais in Switzerland, which opened in June 2007.
All these routes through the Alps represent one of the heroic
achievements of the railroad builders. Moreover, they have proved
remarkably safe since completion, with accidents a rarity despite the
harsh conditions in which the trains operate, especially in winter.
Climbing Mountains
The technology that enables locomotives to ascend steep grades
of track was invented in the early days of the railroads. John
Blenkinsop’s 1811 patent for a steam railroad at the Middleton
colliery, Britain, used an engine with a geared cogwheel, or
“pinion,” that engaged with a line of teeth, or “rack,” located
between the rails. However, it was not until the 1860s that the
system was used on a mountain railroad. Rack-and-pinion tracks
maintain traction on grades of up to 48 percent, whereas the
steepest incline that conventional (“adhesion”) trains can climb is
around 10 percent, even with assistance from extra locomotives.
These specialized tracks also provide essential braking power to
ensure that steep slopes can be safely descended.
PEAK-SCALING PIONEER
The Riggenbach and The 3-mile (4.8-km) Mount
Washington Cog Railroad in New
Locher systems Hampshire is the oldest rack-and-
pinion railroad in the world. It opened
Various rack-and-pinion systems have in 1868 and climbs over 3,500ft
been developed and adopted since (almost 1,100m) to the summit of
Blenkinsop’s first design. Mount Washington, the highest peak
in the northeastern US. The line still
RIGGENBACH SYSTEM (1863) uses the ladderlike rack created by its
The Riggenbach system was the first of founder, Sylvester Marsh, while the
the rack-and-pinion systems to be used engine’s tilted boiler is designed to stay
widely, but its welded “ladder” level on the steep grades of the track.
arrangement proved expensive to maintain.
Slot for pinion cog
RACK PROFILE RACK TOP VIEW
LOCHER SYSTEM (1889)

The Locher system was first used in 1889 and
used a horizontal pinion on either side of the
rack, enabling trains to climb much steeper
grades. It was very stable and allowed cars to
withstand crosswinds.
Rack teeth Horizontal pinion
Rack
PROFILE VIEW FROM ABOVE tooth
CL I M BI NG MOU N TA I NS 109
How it works
Rack-and-pinion steam engines have one running wheels, and so are capable
or more pinions, which are powered by of running on standard rails. Steam-
the cylinders via connecting rods. Some powered trains pushed their cars uphill,
designs place the pinion centrally on the then reversed back down the slope in
axle, between the train’s wheels, while order to maximize braking power. Today,
others mount them on separate axles. most rack-and-pinion trains are powered
Most rack-and-pinion trains have flanged by electric or diesel engines.
THE ABT SYSTEM (1885 )

Designed by Swiss engineer Pinion
Roman Abt and considered
an improvement over the
Riggenbach system (see Axle
below left), the Abt system
has a rack with two or three Pinion teeth engage
rows of teeth—each row with rack, driving
offset from its neighbor—to the train uphill
ensure that the pinion Rack
is constantly in contact
with the rack.
RACK AND PINION SIDE VIEW RACK AND PINION END VIEW
The Panama Railroad:

A Deadly Rush for Gold
A LTHOUGH THE PANAMA RAILROAD was less than 50 miles

(80km) long, its construction was deadly: as many as 12,000 men
may have died building it, from a fatal mix of harsh working
conditions and tropical diseases. The railroad created a crucial link
between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America, however, making
it an essential element in the creation of the United States. It was also
hugely profitable for its owners and shareholders.
On January 24, 1848, demand for transportation across the Panama
isthmus became pressing. On that day, James W. Marshall found gold at
Sutter’s Mill in California, triggering the first Gold Rush. But reaching
California from the east coast of America was a huge challenge. The
gold prospectors had three options: to sail 15,000 miles (24,000km)
around Cape Horn at the southernmost tip of America, a voyage that
took at least 85 days across notoriously storm-ridden seas; to travel 2,000
miles (3,200km) overland across the US on wagon trails, a route that
took at least six months and was also
fraught with perils; or to sail to the
mouth of the Chagres River in what is
today Panama and cross the narrow
isthmus by dugout canoe up the river
and on mules over the hills, to Panama
City and the Pacific, an 50-mile (80-km)
journey that took up to eight days. By
1848, various canal and rail routes across
the isthmus had already been
proposed—and abandoned—by La
Gran Colombia, the US, and France
respectively; indeed, the Spanish had
1849 GOLD RUSH

This guide to the “Wonderful Gold
Regions” of California, published in 1849,
includes information on the different
routes to the goldfields.
T H E PA N A M A R A I L ROA D: A DE A DLY RUS H F OR G OL D 111
T H E 18 55 PA NA M A R A I LROA D
To the US
(east coast)
Chagres LIMON
COLON
BAY
ATLANTIC
OCEAN LAKE
ALAJUELA
GATUN
LAKE
(man-made,
1907–13)
Major city Panama Canal

(man-made,
City/town 1881–1914)
Main line PANAMA
BAY OF
Shipping route PANAMA PACIFIC
OCEAN
To the US
(west coast)
first considered building a canal in the 1520s, before settling for the
Camino Real, the overland mule track that was still in use when the
first gold-diggers arrived. In 1846, The US Government concluded a
new treaty with the Republic of New Granada (Colombia and
Panama), which guaranteed the republic’s sovereignty in exchange
for US transit rights across the isthmus. This paved the way for a
transcontinental route. A year later, the US Congress subsidized a
mail and passenger steamship service up and down the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts from New York to the Chagres River and from Panama
City to Oregon, enabling people and goods to reach Panama easily.
New York entrepreneur William H. Aspinwall had won the bid to
build and operate the Pacific mail steamships, and, with the onset of the
Gold Rush, he set out to build a railroad across the Panamanian isthmus
too. To assess the possibilities, Aspinwall traveled to Panama and
Colombia with John L. Stephens, a lawyer and writer who had traveled
in Central America. They established the Panama Railroad Company,
which was granted an exclusive 49-year concession to build a railroad,
highway, or canal across the isthmus, as well as 250,000 acres of public
land. On the back of this, Aspinwall raised $1 million by selling stock in
the company. An astute businessman, he also persuaded the US Congress

to pay an annual fee of $250,000 (around £55,000) to transport mail over
the isthmus. Meanwhile, the demand for a passenger train had become
increasingly evident: by the end of May 1849, 55 ships had landed more
than 4,000 passengers at Chagres, all eager to reach California.
The route was first surveyed by US Army colonel George W. Hughes,
who was misleadingly optimistic about the railroad’s construction. His
survey indicated that the terrain would not be hard to traverse: it did not
mention the deep swamps, thick jungle, and dangerous hills the route
would have to cross. Aspinwall believed the railroad would need to be
just 20 miles (32km) long, from the furthest navigable point on the
Chagres River to the Pacific Ocean. He contracted experienced American
civil engineers George Totten and John Trautwine to build the railroad,
but they soon realized the disastrous errors of the survey—for a start,
Hughes had overestimated the length of the navigable passage on the
Chagres—and withdrew from the contract. However, both were
eventually rehired as employees of the company, and the reserved
41-year-old Totten ultimately proved to be the hero of the venture.
Totten and Trautwine were all set to begin work on a route starting
from the estuary of the Chagres River, when they found that George
Law, the entrepreneur who had won the contract to convey the US
mail along the east coast, had bought all the suitable land. They were
forced to move the terminus, and found a new site further north at
Manzanillo Island. This meant they had to start construction by
building a causeway to the mainland, and then build on land known
ominously as the Black Swamp. To lay rails over the swamp entailed
shipping tons of limestone rock from an abandoned quarry at Bohio,
way up the Chagres River, to build a solid base for the tracks. Once on
firm land, at the aptly named Mount Hope, they were able to use their
first rolling stock—a locomotive and string of wagons. However, less
than 1 mile (2km) up the river they encountered further seemingly
bottomless swamps and had to sink yet more tons of rocks. Another
problem soon emerged: it was pointless building bridges from wood as
they decayed within a few months in the tropical climate.
The railroad builders were also unprepared for the weather.
Annual rainfall was around 11ft (3.5m), and it rained constantly from
June to December. The Chagres River could rise 50ft (15m) in a couple
of hours. Not only was this hazardous for men working semi-
submerged in the water, it resulted in a climate teeming with tropical
THE VIEW ON ARRIVAL

Passengers eager to cross the Panamanian isthmus arrived
by steamship at the mouth of the Chagres River, shown here,
where they would travel on by dugout canoe, mule—or train.
diseases and insect life. Tarantulas, scorpions, centipedes, wood ticks,

and insects such as ants—white, red, and black—could be deadly,
and malaria-carrying mosquitoes posed a permanent threat. The
swamps were also infested with alligators.
The workers were a veritable foreign legion, turning up from all over
the world and often known only by nicknames or numbers on a payroll.
Few records were kept and it is not known exactly how many men died.
However, it has been reckoned that at one point, one in five of the
workers was dying every month. Another estimate suggests that one
man died for every railroad tie along the route—around 74,000 men,
although this number is implausibly high. Whatever the actual
mortality rate, the railroad’s doctor, J.A. Totten (George’s brother),
found it difficult to dispose of the bodies. His solution, wrote historian
Joseph L. Schott in his book Rails across Panama, was to
pickle the bodies in large barrels, keep them for a decent interval to be
claimed and then sell them in wholesale lots to medical schools all over
the world… the bodies brought high prices, and the profits from the sale
of the cadavers made the railway hospital self-sustaining during the
construction years.
Relations among the international workforce were often fraught. One

day, a gang of French laborers stopped work, hoisted the Tricolor, sang
the Marseillaise, and refused to discuss their grievances except in their
native tongue, which frustrated their Irish foreman. The company
chairman, who spoke French, refused to negotiate except in English. He
resolved the stalemate by cutting off their rations: the men went back to
work, their grievances unknown to this day.
Moreover, the whole region was
IN ITS FIRST lawless and subject to banditry at the
12 YEARS OF hands of the Derienni, land pirates who
stole the gold transported from California
OPERATION, and ruthlessly killed their victims. To
THE PANAMA combat the Derienni, Askinwall hired
RAILROAD Randolph (Ran) Runnels, a famous
Ranger who had hung up his guns after a
CARRIED religious conversion, but seen in a
MORE THAN prophecy that he would be called upon to
take up a mission in a “strange land…
with a great river full of demons and
$750 monsters.” Panama fitted the description,

and Runnels set up a mule express
business as a front for a vigilante force,
called the Isthmus Guard, capable of
MILLION taking on the bandits. In early 1852, the
Guard struck the Derienni while they
IN GOLD were relaxing, dancing, and gambling,
and hanged 37 of them by the seashore.
THE DERIENNI
“Graphic Histories” such as this one,
published in 1853, fueled tales of the
“Robberies, Assassinations, and Horrid
Deeds” perpetrated by “Cool Blooded
Miscreants” on the trails across Panama.
As if terrible conditions, disease, a restive

workforce, and lawlessness were not
trouble enough, the company ran out
of funds when only 8 miles (13km) of
track had been laid; its stock value fell,
and construction ground to a halt.
Meanwhile, shipping magnate Cornelius
Vanderbilt had started work on a rival
route through Nicaragua. Fortunately
for the Panama Railroad Company, this
route was as plagued by problems as their own.
The great turnaround in the railroad’s fortunes came in December
1851, when two steamships arrived at the mouth of the Chagres River
carrying a thousand passengers desperate to reach California. Hearing
the toot of the whistles on Totten’s locomotives, they demanded
carriage over the existing section—anything to avoid the ghastly mule
ride. To deter them, Totten asked an exorbitant fee of 50 cents per mile
and $3 for each 100lb (45kg) of baggage. To his surprise, they accepted.
Soon, so many people were queuing up to use the railroad that the
income from fares enabled Totten and engineer James Baldwin to push
rapidly ahead to a limestone quarry, enabling them to transport stone
by rail to strengthen the line. The company was able to raise another
$4 million in stock on the strength of the demand.
It was not all plain sailing even then, however. In the summer of
1852, many of the workers and their bosses died in a mysterious
epidemic. At the same time, renewed banditry forced Runnels to
carry out more mass hangings. Then Totten’s request to use iron
instead of wood for the bridge over the Chagres triggered a dispute
with a new company director in New York (Stephens’ death had
deprived Totten of his major supporter). Totten was fired and the
remaining 21 miles (34km) of the railroad entrusted to an engineer
named Minor C. Story. Regarded as a boy wonder in the railroad
construction business, Story had no idea of the conditions in Panama.
THE PANAMA RAILROAD IN 1859

Local workers propel passengers on a
handcart. Before the Trans-Continental
Railroad was completed, the Panama
isthmus was the fastest route from the
US east coast to the Pacific.
He employed the materials he had used successfully in New

England, but his wooden bridges collapsed in the tropical climate
and he fled, in Schott’s words, “bankrupt financially, tarnished in
reputation, and broken in spirit.” After a year, Totten was recalled
and recruited more workers, from Europe, India, and China.
Further disasters befell the project, among them a train hitting a
bull on the tracks and toppling into a ravine. Nevertheless, by the
end of 1853 Totten had completed the crucial iron bridge and
the way was almost clear for the run to Panama City.
Around this time, a tragic episode took place among a group of
Chinese laborers, who had proved hard and reliable workers, cleaner
and more sober than the Irish, who mocked them for taking a daily
bath. However, the Chinese relied on a regular supply of opium to
maintain their morale. When an accountant in New York cut off the
supply for being too expensive—and criminal—more than a hundred
of the desperate Chinese committed suicide, hanging themselves from
trees, walking into the water weighed down with stones, or asking
Malay laborers to slay them with machetes.
By now the railroad, although still incomplete, was profitable. In
1854, its 31 miles (50km) received over $1 million in fares from more
than 30,000 passengers, and on January 27, 1855, the two gangs
working from opposite ends of the line joined hands. For 15 years,
the Panama Railroad’s monopoly of transit across the isthmus –
and from the east to west coast of America – made it prodigiously
profitable. It paid for its construction within four years on receipts
boosted by a scale of charges set up by a group of tipsy clerks: once
the railroad was complete, it charged $25 in gold for a first-class
fare, making it by far the most expensive railroad journey in the
world at the time, mile for mile. In its first 12 years, it transported
over $700 million in California gold and more than 500,000 bags of
mail without loss, although the cost of maintenance—including
the replacement of rotting pine railroad ties with hardwood lignum
vitae—dented profits. The Panama Railroad Company’s glory days
continued until 1869, when the completion of the first
transcontinental railroad across the US (see pp.120–27) took
business away from it, but 10 years later, the shareholders made a
handsome profit when the directors of a French group with plans to
dig a canal across the isthmus paid $20 million for the stock.
Totten stayed on as the railroad’s chief engineer until 1875,
overseeing improvements and maintenance. Immediately after
the railroad’s completion he had devised a plan for a canal with
locks across the isthmus. When Ferdinand de Lesseps, the man
behind the Suez Canal, embarked upon his project for such a canal,
Totten was appointed chief engineer. Totten also found time to
build a daunting mountain railroad in Venezuela. Yet his
achievement is recognized only by a modest plaque at the station
in Panama City. As Schott writes, “the brief obituary in the New
York Times stated that he was a retired engineer. It failed to say that
he was the man directly responsible for building the first
transcontinental railroad the world had ever seen.”
TRAIN AT COLON STATION, 1885

A locomotive on the Panama Railroad at
the station in Colon, the town that sprung
up around the railroad workers’ original
shanty town on Manzanillo Island.
Crossing America
T HEODORE JUDAH WAS A DRIVEN MAN, determined to

realize his dream: he believed that the United States needed a
railroad running across its vast landmass to connect east and west.
The restless, dark-haired son of a clergyman, Judah played the organ
as a hobby and came across as rather earnest. Nicknamed “Crazy
Judah” in his day, “he was never considered an entirely normal man,”
according to Oscar Lewis in The Big Four. Judah was, however, an
experienced railroad engineer who had laid out the route for the
spectacular Niagara Gorge Railroad in New York and the Sacramento
Valley Railroad, the first in California.
Judah was not the only dreamer: building a transcontinental US
railroad had been the ambition of various railroad promoters ever
since the first train had chugged down the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad in 1830 (see pp.32–39). Such a railroad was seen not only as
economically beneficial but also as a way of bringing together the
different regions of the US, which stretched across a land mass of
nearly 3,000sq miles (5,000sq km); without the railroad, it is possible
that the US might not even have remained united.
It was Judah, however, who almost singlehandedly persuaded
Congress to pass a law creating a railroad that would link the existing
tracks in the east with California,
1,800 miles (3,000km) away. In
1862, Abraham Lincoln signed
the Pacific Railroad Act—an act
all the more remarkable given
that the Civil War was in full
swing and Washington in a state
of war. The legislation came
with a generous bonus: to ensure
the railroad was built, the
THEODORE JUDAH, 1848

Even by his friends, Judah was
regarded as a “fanatic”on the subject
of the railroads that he dreamed of
and built, but he was also resourceful,
industrious, and hardworking.
CROSSING A M ER ICA 121
companies that built it would receive government subsidies of between

$16,000 and $48,000 for every 1 mile (1.6km) completed, depending on
the difficulty of the terrain. Moreover, they would be granted all the
land extending 10 miles (16km) to one side of the track.
Once he had seen the legislation passed, Judah traveled to
California to survey a possible route through the Sierra Nevada, a
rugged mountain range that reaches 14,500ft (4,420m) above sea level.
Many doubters argued it would be impossible to traverse the range.
Moreover, despite the government funding, Judah still needed more
money to finance to project. His breakthrough came at a meeting in
the upstairs room of a modest grocery store in Sacramento, where
Judah had organized an event to attract potential investors. A group
of four enterprising and ultimately very lucky men—Leland
Stanford, Charles Crocker, Mark Hopkins, and Collis P. Huntington,
all small-town merchants with ambition—decided to back his crazy
endeavor. The Big Four, as they became known, founded the Central
Pacific Railroad company, which won the contract to build the line
heading eastward from California.
Sadly, like many railroad pioneers, Judah did not live to see the
fruits of his labors. He fell out with the Big Four over their efforts to
extract as much money as they could from the project by fraudulent
activity, and headed back to New York. At the time, the only route
back to the east coast was via Panama (see pp.110–119), where Judah
unfortunately contracted yellow fever and died at the age of 37.
Meanwhile, the Central Pacific encountered difficulties, from
winter snow to a lack of funds caused by the corrupt activities of the
Big Four. Few local people were willing to work for the company
because mining and gold-digging were more lucrative, so thousands
of Chinese laborers were shipped across the Pacific to provide
manpower. Progress was slow at first, but by 1867, the railway over the
Sierra Nevada at the Donner Pass (7,085ft/2,160m) was completed.
This was the toughest engineering challenge of the railroad, and
“I am going to California to be
the pioneering railroad engineer
of the Pacific Coast”
THEODORE JUDAH
subsequent progress on the plains was far easier. When the Civil War
ended, in 1865, the Union Pacific Railroad, which had the contract for
the other end of the track starting in Council Bluffs, Iowa, began to
make good progress. Boosting the Union Pacific’s construction, many
ex-Civil War soldiers joined the teams of railroad-builders, providing
a disciplined workforce supplemented by freed slaves.
Like the Central Pacific, the Union Pacific was deeply corrupt and
became a vehicle to enrich its backers, notably Thomas C. Durant,
the company’s vice-president, and his cronies. Both companies came
up with a simple scheme to purloin the public purse: they created
separate construction companies, which were given contracts to
construct the line at inflated prices, creating vast profits for these
companies, which in turn paid out generous dividends to their
proprietors—who just happened to be the owners of the railroad
companies. In this way, all the main railroad backers became
multimillionaires at the government’s expense.
Building a railroad in the sparsely populated west of the US
required a remarkable level of organization, and as many as 10,000
workers at its peak. The railroad was constructed in stages: first, an
advance party surveyed the route; then graders smoothed out the
route, shifting huge amounts of rock and earth, laying the
embankments and building the bridges; these were followed by
the tracklayers, who put down the ties and rails.
The workers lived in camps that moved forward with the railroad.
These virtual towns became known as “hells on wheels.” They were
infamous for their spartan accommodation and saloons—the
original of those later portrayed in so many Westerns. Fights were
frequent, both with fists and with guns, and the danger of shoot-outs
in these townships was constant. The workers also risked attack from
Native Americans justifiably incensed at the land grab. The railroad
men responded with force to the raids and massacred countless Sioux
and Cheyenne people, including women and children, in reprisals,
although they established a better relationship with the Pawnee,
allowing them free rides on the railroad and establishing an alliance
with them against the Sioux.
Groups of workers fought among themselves too. The
government contracts had been set up in such a way that the two
companies were competing to build the most track, as no meeting
point had been specified. At one stage, the two lines passed each
other on a mountainside: the Irish laborers of the Union Pacific

were blasting rock, which tumbled down on the Chinese workers of
the Central Pacific below. Enraged, the Chinese started a fight that
was only ended by negotiations between the companies. The
Central and Union negotiated a truce over where their respective
tracks should meet. This was at Promontory Summit in Utah,
where, on May 10, 1869, Stanford and Durant took turns to bang in
a golden spike. A momentous occasion, it was marked by celebrations
across the US as the news spread rapidly by telegraph. In Chicago, a
7-mile (11-km) parade jammed the streets, while in New York, the
event was marked by a 100-gun salute. In Sacramento, 30 locomotives
that had been assembled for the occasion tooted their whistles in a
tuneless concert. Despite the corruption and construction
problems, it had taken only six years for the line to be completed,
THE MEETING AT PROMONTORY SUMMIT, 1869

Samuel S. Montague of Central Pacific Railroad (center left)
shakes hands with Grenville M. Dodge of Union Pacific
Railroad (center right). The workers’ celebratory liquor
bottles were removed from some versions of the picture.
GOLDEN SPIKE
The golden spike that
marked the “railway wedding”
at Promontory Summit, Utah, in
1869—regarded as the day that the eastern
and western states of America were united.
rather than the expected ten years—although, in fact, the

tracks were not quite continuous across the US until the bridge
over the Missouri River between Council Bluffs and Omaha was
completed in 1872.
The “railway wedding” at Promontory Summit is still celebrated
today in American history as the day on which the country was
united. The importance of the achievement cannot be overestimated.
A journey that would have taken six months on precarious wagons
through a harsh climate—sweating in the summer, freezing in
winter—could now be achieved in a few days. It triggered the
settlement of the West, and immigrants flowed westward.
Soon, other transcontinental railroads were under construction,
both in the US and in Canada. The next two lines opened in 1883—
the Southern Pacific (the name of the ocean was used by nearly all
the companies), which ran to Los Angeles in California, and the
Northern Pacific, which terminated at the other end of the western
seaboard in Seattle, Washington. Generous government grants of
land stimulated this intense bout of railroad construction, as well
as a conviction that the lines would bring profits through the
anticipated influx of immigrants.
A fourth line was built without any government support, thanks
to the tenacity of a remarkable one-eyed frontiersman, James J. Hill.
Known as the “Empire Builder,” he was probably the greatest North
American railroad-builder. Hill was a strange-looking fellow, lithe
and short with a huge nose, a small mouth, and deep-set eyes, one of
which he had lost in his youth in an archery accident. He was also a
remarkable wheeler-dealer, who for 30 years pursued his vision of
building a line that would open up the vast prairies of Montana to
settlers and made it possible to export grain to the Far East. Moreover,
his line the Great Northern Railway—which in 1893 linked St. Paul,
Minnesota, to Seattle, Washington—was built to a higher standard
than those of his rivals, with gentler grades and without the tight
curves that make trains slow down.
To complete the “set” in the US, the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe
Railway crept quietly westward, funded by real estate offices that sold
the land that had been granted to it by the government. The railroad,
which linked up with existing California lines in 1884, became the
most successful of the transcontinental lines by carrying freight
through to the port at Los Angeles. Indeed, freight was the mainstay
of most of these lines. However, the flow of immigrants proved
profitable too, and the lines competed to attract them to the areas
served by their routes. The railroads promoted themselves to
potential settlers, even opening offices in Europe to attract new
migrants so that they could cash in on their vast land holdings. All
kinds of dubious claims about the fertility of the land and the mildness
of the climate were made to entice desperate people seeking a better
life—many of whom gave up after their first winter of heavy snowfall
or summer of drought.
Canada, then a British colony, was determined to build a

transcontinental line too. This was for commercial reasons, but also
to unify the disparate parts of the country—notably British
Columbia, which had threatened secession. If anything, the
achievements of the builders of the first Canadian line, the Canadian
Pacific Railway, were greater than those of their rivals south of the
border. As ever, the man in charge, William Cornelius Van Horne,
was a remarkable character who took a hands-on approach. He
traveled from site to site and was not averse to walking over rickety
trestle bridges to show his workers that they must be equally fearless.
It was 2,700 miles (4,300km) from the developed regions of Ontario
to the Pacific Ocean, half as far again as the distance covered by the
first US transcontinental, and the terrain was certainly no easier.
The route of the Canadian Pacific ran to the north of the Great Lakes
and, although the initial sections were relatively flat, the granite shelf
of the Canadian Shield required considerable blasting through hard
rock. There were also two mountain ranges, the Rockies and the
“If he’d of lived, he’d of been a great

man. A man like James J. Hill”
F. SCOTT FITZGERALD, THE GREAT GATSBY
Selkirks. The line was initially built at a very steep grade of 1 in 22
(4.5 percent) to reach the mountain heights, but these steep stretches
were later replaced by spiral tunnels. The tough conditions took a
high toll on the 15,000 workers, half of whom were Chinese, and at
least 800 men died through want of basic safety measures. It took
13 years to complete the line, which opened without fanfare, on Van
Horne’s instructions, in 1885.
It was another 30 years before the opening of the next Canadian
transcontinental, the Canadian Northern Railway, which took a
more northerly route through the mountains. It was built gradually,
in sections, with the aim of attracting settlers to the vast prairies of
western Canada. The rivalry between the first two lines then
prompted the decision to build a third, the Grand Trunk Pacific/
National Transcontinental Railway, built in two sections east and
west from Winnipeg. This was the hardest of the three to build,
and was in many ways unnecessary, since for hundreds of miles it ran
parallel to the first Canadian transcontinental.
As a result of all this frenzied construction, there were no fewer
than five transcontinental routes across the US by the end of the 19th
century, and the three Canadian transcontinental railroads were all
completed by the end of World War I. However, Canada had
overreached itself, given its sparse population, and its second two
railroads were declared bankrupt soon after their completion—a fate
also suffered by several of the American transcontinentals.
Nonetheless, these lines continued to operate, providing vital links
within their respective countries, and were instrumental in
stimulating population growth and economic development: the
railroads had conquered the West. Most of the tracks still survive
today, playing a vital role in transporting freight.
CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY

A freight train crosses Surprise Creek Bridge in the
Glacier National Park, British Columbia. The original
bridge, one of several over deep chasms on the line,
was wooden. It was replaced by a steel bridge in 1894.
CENTRAL PACIFIC
The crew of a freight train
pose for the camera at
Mill City, Nevada, on the
Central Pacific Railroad
in 1883. The train features
the classic American
“cowcatcher” for clearing
the track ahead.
Dawson Creek Churchill
Prince Rupert
CANADA
Grande
Prairie
EDMONTON
Kamloops Saskatoon
VANCOUVER CALGARY Moose Jaw

WINNEPEG
SEATTLE REGINA
PORTLAND
St. Paul
MINNEAPOLIS
Promontory Point
SALT LAKE
SIERRA CITY
DENVER
NEVADA
KANSAS CITY
SAN
FRANCISCO
LAS VEGAS
AMARILLO
LOS ANGELES
PHOENIX
SAN DIEGO
FORT WORTH
DALLAS
EL PASO HOUSTON
PACIFIC Galveston
OCEAN SAN ANTONIO

Corpus
MEXICO Christi
NORT H A M ER IC A N T R A NS CON T I N E N TA L S 129
North American
Transcontinentals
The first railroad to cross North America was the Pacific
HUDSON
Railroad—a combination of the Union and Central Pacific lines
BAY that linked Chicago and California. The fledgling United States of
America was unified for the first time, opening up the country
to further settlement and exploitation. The success of the first
route spawned a profusion of alternatives—as well as three
lines across Canada—which have together helped the US
rail network to become the most extensive in the world.
Moosonee
Bathurst Amherst
QUEBEC
Lake MONTREAL
Superior
Sault Ste. Marie
Ottawa
Lake
Duluth Huron Lake
Lake Ontario BOSTON
Michigan TORONTO
Milwaukee Buffalo
Providence
New Haven
ATLANTIC
Lake
DETROIT Erie NEW YORK OCEAN
CHICAGO
PHILADELPHIA
PITTSBURGH Baltimore
INDIANAPOLIS WASHINGTON, DC
Cincinnati
ST. LOUIS Newport News K EY
City
Town
National boundary
ATLANTA Main line
BIRMINGHAM Savannah HISTORIC ROUTES:
Southern Pacific
Baton JACKSONVILLE
Rouge Union Pacific
Mobile
Great Northern
NEW ORLEANS Tampa
Central Pacific
MIAMI Canadian Pacific

GULF OF MEXICO
Going Underground
B UILDING A RAILROAD UNDERGROUND was a radical idea,

and it took a visionary man to dream up the plan. That man was
Charles Pearson, solicitor to the City of London, who realized in the
1840s that something had to be done about the congestion and chaos
of the city’s streets. The world’s first metropolis, London was booming
thanks to the Industrial Revolution. In the first half of the 19th
century, its population had grown from 1 million to 2.5 million. As it
had grown, its traffic problems had become unmanageable, with
pedestrians, hackney carriages, and horse-drawn buses all competing
for space on the roads.
Pearson realized that central London was crowded with terrible
slum housing, but people could not live far from the center as walking
was the only way to get to work. The solution, he decided, was to
build railroad lines that extended beyond the city boundary; the
central section of the railroads, however, would have to be built
beneath the city streets, so that houses would not have to be
demolished. Pearson hoped these railroads would allow people to
move out to far better conditions than existed in the inner city
“slums,” with gardens and fresh air.
A serial campaigner, who fought for universal suffrage, civic rights
for Jews, and penal reform, Pearson is best remembered for his
ground-breaking achievement as pioneer of what became known as
the Underground. He first set out his idea in 1845, in a pamphlet
proposing a glass-roofed railroad down the Fleet valley between
King’s Cross and Farringdon. Various inventors came up with similar
ideas at the time. One plan was to drain the Regent’s Canal, which
encircled central London, and convert it into a railroad. Another
proposal was for an overhead railroad on arches, like those later
constructed in New York and Chicago. A third, the most stylish, was
for a “crystal railway” around London: a line either above or below
street level, combined with a boulevard or walkway lined with shops
and houses, and all covered by a glass arcade.
The 1840s were a period of intense railroad construction. A central

station for the whole capital was proposed at Farringdon, on the edge
of the City of London, but in 1846, a commission ruled this out because
GOI NG U N DERGROU N D 131
NUMBER OF NAVVIES
of the destruction it would cause WHO BUILT THE FIRST
in the City. Instead, the mainline UNDERGROUND LINE BY
stations were located on the edge HAND OVER TWO YEARS
of the central area. Ironically, this
aggravated congestion as
passengers pouring off the trains
tried to get around the center of
the city. Pearson’s vision of an
underground railroad to link the
stations was the obvious solution.
2,000
He pushed through his plan, obtaining funds from the City of London
as well as investment from existing railroad companies, and the plan
received parliamentary approval in 1853. Unusually among railroad
pioneers, Pearson did not seek any financial gain from the project.
The Metropolitan Railway Company was founded in 1854, but it
was not until early in 1860 that work started on a line to link three of
the mainline stations—Paddington, Euston, and King’s Cross—with
the City, using a new method known as “cut and cover,” which involved
digging a cutting, laying the railroad, and covering it with a tunnel.
This technique was disruptive at ground level and meant that the
railroad usually had to follow the line of existing streets. Interestingly,
one house that had to be demolished on the route of the line, at 23
Leinster Gardens, was recreated as a façade in order not to ruin an
elegant terrace, the open track behind the façade serving as a vent for
the steam trains. It became a running joke among postboys to send
novices to that address to deliver telegrams.
Although the building of such a line was unprecedented, there
was only one major mishap, when the Fleet River burst its banks
and flooded the works to a depth of 10ft (3m) in June 1862. Despite
this, the 5-mile (7.5-km) line opened in January 1863, only a few
months behind schedule, at a cost of £1 million (around £50
million/$81 million in today’s money). Sadly, Pearson had died the
previous September and missed the sumptuous banquet held at
Farringdon station to celebrate its opening.
There had been doubts as to whether people would venture onto
this new type of railroad. Not only were the stations gas-lit and dark,
but the trains were also hauled by steam engines that belched out
smoke and steam, despite being equipped with special condensing
“CUT AND COVER” CONSTRUCTION

Navvies build a section of the Metropolitan
District Railway to link London’s mainline
stations in the 1860s. This “cut and cover”
method caused significant disruption.
equipment. The doubters, however, were proved wrong. Londoners

had few concerns about trying out this new invention—the world’s
first subterranean railroad—and 30,000 braved what The Times had
warned would be “dark, noisome tunnels” to travel on it on the first
day, January 10, 1863. The Metropolitan Railway, which gave its name
to underground systems all around the world, was an instant success.
It provided cheap laborers’ trains early in the morning, which proved
hugely popular. After the workmen’s trains came thousands of office
clerks who worked in the City of London and could afford the more
expensive fares charged later in the morning. Throughout the day,
the trains attracted all types of traveler in three different classes.
The Metropolitan Railway sought to ban smoking at first, on the
grounds that the locomotives already created a stuffy atmosphere,
but after a complaint in Parliament, the railroad was forced to allow
smokers on the trains. Indeed, the air was sometimes so filled with
smoke that chemists near the stations enjoyed a roaring trade in
Metropolitan Mixture (strong smelling salts), sold as a panacea for
passengers overcome by the fumes. In general, though, one of the
UNDERGROUND INSPECTION
Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone (front
right) takes a tour of inspection of the Metropolitan
Railway, with the company’s directors and engineers,
in 1862, a year before the line’s opening.
“A journey from King’s Cross

to Baker Street is a form
of mild torture”
THE TIMES EDITORIAL, 1884
reasons people were attracted to the system was that it was safe. No
severe accidents occurred during its crucial early days, and indeed very
few have happened throughout its history. Within a dozen years of the
opening of the first line, no fewer than 70 million people were traveling
annually on what had soon become known as the Underground.
Flushed with success, the Metropolitan Railway began to expand
almost immediately. It built two extra tracks between King’s Cross
and Farringdon, called the City Widened Lines, which were then
extended farther into the City. Other promoters were keen to get
involved, and one was chosen to share the expansion of the network.
This was the Metropolitan District Railway (later the District line),
run by James Staats Forbes, a rival of the Metropolitan’s chairman,
Edward Watkin. The two were already in competition when they set
out their respective plans to expand the Underground: Forbes ran
the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, while Watkin was a
director of its competitor in Kent, the South Eastern Railway.
For the next 30 years, the rival railroads expanded the Underground
system rapidly into north and west London. They had rather different
conceptions, which is why the Metropolitan line extends far beyond
central London into the Metroland developed in the 1920s and 1930s,
while the District line only extends as far as the more central
Wimbledon, Richmond, and Ealing. Nevertheless, thanks to the
dynamism of this duo, the Underground network soon spread well
beyond the existing city boundaries, and, wherever the lines were
built, new housing soon sprang up.
Despite their achievements, the Metropolitan and District
railroads never reconciled their differences and remained in dispute
over who should complete the Circle Line, which links nearly all
of London’s mainline terminals, until its completion in 1884.
The two companies ended up running the line jointly, but remained
in competition: the Metropolitan ran the clockwise trains and
the District the counterclockwise ones. Hapless visitors to London
had to choose between the two companies’ ticket offices and could
end up going the long way round the Circle if they unwittingly
bought the wrong ticket.
In 1890, the first deep “tube” line, bored out of the London clay
rather than being built by the cut and cover method, was completed.
The City and South London Railway ran under the River Thames
between Stockwell and the City. As there was inadequate ventilation in
the tunnels deep underground, the trains were powered by electricity
rather than steam. The line was dubbed the “tuppenny tube” as two
pence was the fare for all journeys, and it too was an instant success—
despite the fact that the trains operating the service had tiny windows
and were universally known as sardine boxes. Other Tube railroads
soon followed. Both the Waterloo and City Line and the Central Line,
the most successful of the early lines, had opened by 1900.
A series of pioneering promoters continued to develop the
Underground. The next was Charles Yerkes, an American with a
prison record who had once run Chicago’s tramways, and turned
out to be a transportation visionary. He brought together several
lines, both existing and proposed, under the auspices of the
Underground Electric Railways Ltd (UERL); electrified the
Metropolitan, District, and Circle lines; and, remarkably, built
three deep Tube lines in the space of five years—the Piccadilly and
Bakerloo lines, and the Hampstead section of the Northern line. By
1907, all the Tube lines through central London, except the Victoria
Line (opened in 1968 and completed in 1972) and Jubilee Line (opened
in 1979 and extended in 1999), had been built.
After Yerkes, progress was more in marketing than engineering.
Frank Pick, who started working for the network in 1906 and ran it
until 1940 alongside chairman Albert Stanley (later Lord Ashfield),
created the public image of the Underground. Pick and Stanley were a
successful partnership: Pick was an assiduous obsessive, while Stanley
was more strategic. Their creation lives on today, a public organization
whose achievements have been recognized around the world.
Pick instigated the design of both the famous red, blue, and white
roundel that became the instantly recognizable Underground sign, and
the innovative and much-imitated map devised by Harry Beck. An
electrician employed by the company, Beck created the map, based on
electrical diagrams, in his spare time. Pick also commissioned the
Johnston Sans typeface for the organization, advertising posters by
UNDERGROUND SIGN
Commissioned by Frank Pick, the
Underground logo first appeared as a
red disk in 1908. It was later adapted
into a bullseye by designer Edward
Johnston, and has evolved into the
distinctive roundel still in use today.
artists both known and unknown,

and cutting-edge architectural
designs for new stations. For his
part, Stanley persuaded the
government to pay for suburban extensions of the system. Together,
the pair built up the UERL into a vast organization encompassing
almost all the Underground lines and London’s buses, and ran the
nationalized London Transport from its creation in 1933 until World
War II, a period widely regarded as its heyday.
Although the system was neglected after the war and usage fell
dramatically, it has revived since the 1970s and flourishes today. Built
by people with vision, the London Underground is more than just a
transportation system; it is the mechanism that made it possible for
London to grow in the way it did. The Underground allowed people
to live farther out, as Pearson wanted, but also enabled the center of
the city to remain compact and accessible. Today, the underground
attracts record numbers of passengers. The network will soon benefit
from the addition of Crossrail, running under London in an east–
west direction and linking up with all the Underground lines, which
will greatly relieve pressure on the system.
Uniquely, the London Underground has become the emblem of the
city it serves. Thanks to Pearson and subsequent developers, London
became the first city with a railroad beneath its streets, and Britain was
once again a pioneer. It was not until the end of the 19th century that
other cities started building railroads underground. Budapest, in
Hungary, was the second city in the world to develop a metro system,
which opened in 1896, more than 30 years after London’s. Major cities
such as Paris, New York, and Berlin followed in the early years of the
20th century. Now, most major cities boast an underground railroad
system and there are nearly 200 metro and subway networks around
the world, from Yerevan in Armenia to Los Teques in Venezuela.
Death on the Rails
N OWADAYS, TRAVELING BY RAIL is extremely safe, but this

was not always the case. In fact, it took several generations to
finally tame the “iron horse.” Surrounding this strange and inherently
dangerous beast, there were many other hazardous elements. In the
words of an old-time railroad man: “Accidents don’t happen by
accident.” Besides the trains themselves—especially their brakes—
faulty signaling, defective tracks, human error, and organizational
blunders were all culprits. Today, because of the knowledge that train
travel is usually perfectly safe, any rail accident attracts an inordinate
amount of attention from the media and public. However, no such
attention was ever paid to the fate of the earliest railroad workers,
who put their lives on the line, literally. In Britain in the 1860s, 800
workers were killed every year, ten times the number of passengers
who perished. The number of fatalities among both workers and
passengers has declined steadily since then, but working on the
railroads, particularly on the track, remains a dangerous occupation.
The sheer metallic brutality of railroad accidents often took more
than a physical toll on those involved; they also caused mental
anguish, which would now be identified as post-traumatic stress
disorder. An early sufferer, British novelist Charles Dickens, described
his feelings after he was involved in an accident at Staplehurst in Kent
in 1865. At first, he behaved impeccably, nursing the sick and dying.
He was, he said, “not in the least flustered at the time,” but when he
clambered back into his passenger car he could not stop shaking.
Recounting the incident later also provoked the same reaction: “In
writing these words I feel the shake and am obliged to stop.” Dickens
never fully recovered from the trauma, remaining frightened of rail
travel for the rest of his life, and dying—in a strange coincidence—
on the fifth anniversary of the accident.
The only positive outcome of an accident is when it triggers
improvement in safety measures or procedures, a process often
ghoulishly dubbed “tombstone technology.” This was evident as far
back as 1842, after the first major disaster in France at Meudon on the
line from Paris to Versailles (see p.43). Most of the deaths were caused
not by the crash itself, but because the compartments were locked—
to deter interlopers who had not paid for their tickets—so passengers
DE AT H ON T H E R A I L S 139
were unable to escape from the wrecked train. Thereafter,

compartments were left unlocked. Similarly, an appalling crash at
Armagh in Northern Ireland in 1889 spurred on legislation that
greatly increased the railroad regulator’s enforcement powers, and
introduced better braking systems. Many of the fatalities in the
Armagh crash were children, which heightened the tragedy and
prompted such a strong legislative reaction. However, a famous
contemporary wit, the Reverend Sydney Smith, suggested that it
would take the death of a member of the nobility to really effect
change: “We have up to this point been very careless of our railway
regulations. The first person of rank who is killed [he suggested a
bishop, a breed for whom he had a particular loathing] will put
everything in order and produce a code of the most careful rules.”
Even today, a safety inspector believes that “the railway gets safer and
each incident enables us to improve still further.” In the past few decades,
installing powered doors, which passengers cannot open, has helped
eliminate the problem of people jumping on or off moving trains—a
form of idiocy that caused half the deaths and injuries at stations
ARMAGH RAIL DISASTER

On June 12, 1889, a packed train with inadequate brakes
slid backward down a steep hill and collided with an
oncoming train. It was Ireland’s worst railroad disaster—89
people died, mostly children, and hundreds were injured.
reported by British Rail in the 1980s. But tombstone technology has not
always been applied. Wooden coaches had long been known to increase
the risk of fire in the event of an accident, but as late as 1928, a crash near
Bristol, England, involving these old-fashioned coaches resulted in 15
deaths when inflammable gas ignited. Even then, wood-framed coaches
were not entirely abandoned in Britain until after 1945. Technological
faults can also combine with other conditions to cause tragedy. In India,
the deadly Bihar rail disaster of 1981 is thought to have been caused by
flash flooding combined with a brake failure. The train derailed and
plunged into a nearby river, taking all 800 of its passengers with it.
This was one of the worst accidents in railroad history, claiming the
lives of an estimated 500 or more people.
Sometimes a train itself may be faultless, but other structural
defects can spell doom. Using steel instead of iron has made rails
stronger, but the “joint bar” joining rails can be weak. It was a faulty
joint bar that caused an accident at Brétigny-sur-Orge near Paris,
France, in the summer of 2013, killing seven people. Often, the rail
tracks are only as safe as the structures that support them. Most
famously, the first rail bridge over the River Tay in Scotland, built in
1878, was not designed to withstand really high winds. It collapsed
a year after it was built, plunging a passenger train into the river
below. As that memorably bad poet William McGonagall put it:
Beautiful bridge of the Silv’ry Tay!

Alas I am very sorry to say
That ninety lives have been taken away,
On the last Sabbath day of 1879
Which will be remembered for a very long time
2004 TSUNAMI RAIL

DISASTER
An earthquake in the
Indian Ocean on
December 26, 2004
triggered massive tidal
waves along the coast. A
train in Sinigame on the
southwestern coast of
Sri Lanka was destroyed.
ON AVERAGE, ONE PERSON IS KILLED PER
3 BILLION
MILES (5 BILLION KM) OF
RAILROAD TRAVELED
Some accidents are beyond human control. The deadly earthquake
and tsunami of Boxing Day 2004 devastated the coast of South Asia. It
also caused the world’s worst rail disaster when 1,700 passengers were
killed on a coastal railroad in Sri Lanka. Other types of railroad
“accident” are all too human, and deliberate. Acts of railroad sabotage
have been common, not least in the repertoire of British Army
Colonel T.E. Lawrence, also known as Lawrence of Arabia (see pp.288–
93). Many saboteurs, such as the French railroad men who wrecked
their own tracks in the latter stages of the German Occupation in
World War II, are regarded as heroes. Others, such as members of the
French Communist party responsible for a crash that killed 21 people
in 1947 on the main line between Paris and Lille, are generally
considered terrorists. More recently, attacks at stations and on trains
as far apart as Madrid, London, and Mumbai demonstrate the
vulnerability of railroads to attack by those with evil intent.
Just as pilots are blamed for aircraft crashes, so engineers are
always in the spotlight. Fatigue, often after 12 or more hours at
work, was the biggest problem before legal limits were introduced.
This automatic fatigue syndrome affected not just engineers but
other workers as well, such as the overworked signal repairmen
who caused the Clapham disaster in London in 1988. Back in 1879, a
time when the companies were fighting any attempt to limit
working hours, a parliamentary inquiry reported the case of a
brakeman who had been on duty for 19 hours and consequently
failed to apply the brake on his train. And of course engineers are
not immune to personal problems. Many people believe that the
worst crash ever recorded on the London Underground, at Moorgate
in 1975, which killed 43 people, was caused by a suicidal engineer.
THE LEGEND OF CASEY JONES

In 1950, the US Post Office issued
a series of stamps honoring the
“Railroad Engineers of America.”
Casey Jones was one of the engineers
immortalized in a stamp, and
described as “a railroader’s hero.”
The most frequent cause of railroad accidents, killing thousands over

the decades, is speeding. Nowadays, there are many more controls
preventing engineers from speeding, and warning systems to notify
them if they do. However, even on modern trains, speeding remains a
problem, as seen in the appalling accident that killed 79 people in the
summer of 2013 just outside Santiago de Compostela in northwest Spain.
One engineer who died while traveling too fast went on to become a cult
figure in American folklore and folksong—Casey Jones. A crack
engineer on the Chicago Fast Mail, Jones “took his farewell trip to the
promised land” when he crashed into a stalled train in the fog in April
1900 while trying to make up lost time. Jones was killed on impact, but
he saved the lives of all his passengers and crew by slowing the train at
the last moment. As Wallace Saunders put it in The Ballad of Casey Jones:
Casey smiled, said, ‘I’m feelin’ fine,

Gonna ride that train to the end of the line.
There’s ridges and bridges, and hills to climb,
Got a head of steam and ahead of time.’
Thankfully, train crashes are increasingly rare, especially in industrialized

countries. In fact, it is car drivers, rather than train engineers, who
remain the most likely cause of accidents on the railroads, particularly
at grade crossings. In the US, this problem is much worse than elsewhere
because there are about 200,000 grade crossings across the country. They
account for some 4,000 accidents and 500 deaths every year, nearly all of
them car occupants, rather than rail passengers. In three-quarters of the
cases, an official report attributed the disaster to “the impatience of
the driver of the vehicle involved,” a tendency that improvements in the
design of grade crossings and modernization of the warning signs can
do little to improve. Train engineers have to sound their horn at every
road crossing, however minor, which is why in the US trains are heard
so frequently. Cumbersome trucks also pose a threat. On a line in rural
France in 1997, a diesel train sliced a slow-moving tanker truck in

two, killing 31 people. It was the worst rail accident in France, a
country proud of the safety of its trains.
Railroad management has always been a legitimate target for
blame, as one 19th-century American lawyer in a case involving a
head-on collision remarked: “This is one helluva way to run a railroad.”
Operations were initially haphazard, because no one knew anything
about railroads. As writer-engineer L.T.C. Rolt put it: “When we
consider operational methods in the early days of railways the
remarkable thing is that there were not more serious accidents.” But
organizational danger has, if anything, grown over the past few
decades, mainly due to the outsourcing of railwork and maintenance,
and the increasing prioritization of performance, punctuality, and, of
course, cost. These kinds of institutional inadequacies led to the most
serious accident of modern times in Europe. In June 1998, 101
passengers were killed after the locomotive on a German high-speed
train separated from the coaches, which then derailed. At the time,
the Germans were desperately trying to catch up with the French,
who had taken the lead in Europe in high-speed rail travel, and had
taken short cuts to achieve the right balance of suspension, wheel
design, and track flexibility. Deutsche Bahn had been warned of the
problem but chose to ignore it, perhaps due to a combination of pride
and an unwillingness to delay the introduction of high-speed travel.
Arguably the worst systemic problems in modern railroads—
including several fatal accidents—were caused by the privatization of
British Rail in the 1990s. It was replaced by 94 separate organizations,
many run by inexperienced executives. Track maintenance was also
outsourced to a variety of companies, and it was shortcomings in this
area that led to a crash at Hatfield, north of London, in 2000. Four
passengers were killed and 70 were injured. Investigations into the crash
revealed that the cause was a fractured rail, which exposed the failings of
the private maintenance companies. Train speeds throughout Britain
were reduced to a mere 20mph (32kph) for more than a year, which had
repercussions for passengers and train companies alike. As a result of the
accident, track maintenance was partially re-nationalized in 2002.
In the 21st century, as in the 19th century, railroads and passengers
are vulnerable to both natural and unnatural disasters. However,
thanks to modern technology, trains are statistically the safest and
most eco-friendly way to travel.
Stopping the Train

In rail’s infancy, a train’s brakes were simple wooden
blocks, called shoes, that were applied to the wheels by
turning hand controls at several points along the train’s
length. As speeds increased, however, a more effective
way of braking was required to stop trains over a shorter
distance, and various attempts were made to create
a brake with one point of control, operated by the
engineer. In 1875, a competition was held in Britain to
find the best solution. The clear winner of these Newark
Trials was the Westinghouse automatic air brake, which
was widely adopted in the US. Britain initially used
the less successful vacuum brake, but air brakes have
since come into standard usage worldwide.
Brake shoes
The first simple brake shoes were soon
developed to become “continuous” brakes.
In this system, brakes were located on every car
and were controlled from the locomotive
engine by ropes, chains, or pipes running the
length of the train. The wooden shoe was
suspended by a lever, or levers, between the
brake cylinder and the wheel. As technology
progressed, the block was more often made
from cast iron, which is still used widely,
although modern railroads also use a wide
variety of composite materials.
BRAKE SHOE ON NORFOLK AND WESTERN NUMBER 521, 1958
STOPPING THE TRAIN 145
A DANGEROUS JOB
Before brakes were controlled
solely from the engine, many Air braking systems
railroad cars had brake vans, During the 1870s “battle of the brakes,”
with hand-operated screw air brakes could bring a train traveling
brakes manned by brakemen. at 50mph (80kph) to a halt in half the
The train engineer coordinated time taken by vacuum brakes: the
the braking with signals from braking distance for Westinghouse’s
the engine whistle.
automatic air brake was 777ft (237m),
compared to 1,477ft (450m) for a vacuum
brake—a considerable safety advantage.
Today, air or pneumatic brakes are the
standard system used by railroads
around the world. These brakes use
compressed air to apply a shoe block to
the wheel.
Brake pipe
Filled with
compressed air
Valve closed
Feed groove
AUXILIARY TRIPLE
RESERVOIR SLIDE
VALVE
Brake
stops wheel Air pressure
Spring pushes piston
Exhaust valve
closed
WHEEL Piston Compressed air
flows to brake
BRAKE CYLINDER
cylinder
AIR BRAKE APPLICATION
A pump compresses air for use in the system. The
engineer controls the air with a triple valve. When
this is applied, compressed air is released into the
brake pipe and air pressure forces the piston to
move against a spring in the brake cylinder,
causing the brake shoe to be applied to the wheels.
Brake pipe Valve
Reservoir refills opens
with air Feed groove limits for air
air intake intake
AUXILIARY TRIPLE
Brake RESERVOIR SLIDE
releases VALVE
wheel
Spring Piston
Exhaust
valve opens
releasing air
WHEEL
Piston returns to
BRAKE CYLINDER original position
AIR BRAKE RELEASE

When the engineer releases the brake valve, air
leaves the brake pipes. As air escapes from the
exhaust, a spring in the brake cylinder pushes
the piston back, causing the brake shoes to
disengage from the wheels. The auxiliary air
reservoir meanwhile refills.
The Railroad Experience
T RAVELING ON TRAINS was not comfortable in the early days.

Across Europe, the cars were primitive with no amenities, and
were based on horse-drawn stagecoach designs. Compartments
seated six people facing each other, with doors on both sides. Cars
were made up of what was effectively a room supported on two axles,
with a basic suspension system. Originally, most of the superstructure
was made of wood, which was a fire risk and provided scant protection
in the event of an accident.
On the Liverpool and Manchester, and on other early lines,
there were different ticket prices. Passengers willing, or able, to pay
a little more could obtain a place in the mail car, which had only a
couple of comfortable corner seats and offered more privacy. At
the other extreme, there was the discount option of riding in a
railroad car with sides open to the elements. As passenger travel
became more popular, a hierarchy developed. Cheap tickets were
available for boxlike cars, which had holes in the floor for drainage,
but often no seats. They were used on many railroads throughout
Europe and gave people an awful experience of rail travel.
Fortunately, these open cars were considered too dangerous, as
well as horribly uncomfortable, and were soon phased out. To
replace them, compartment-style cars were built for second- and
third-class passengers, with less space for people’s legs and much
harder seats than first-class cars.
Some of the Trans-Siberian Railway services (see pp.180–89) were
billed as “luxury”, with staff instructed to empty spittoons and keep car
temperatures at a balmy 57°F (14°C). In practice, however, customer
service was not a strong point. Delays were standard, and at stations
peasants scrambled out to cook soup on the platforms, further delaying
the train. For everyone else, the dining cars served meals by St. Petersburg
time, regardless of the line’s seven time zones: toward the east, passengers
had to eat breakfast at 2pm, while dinner was served at 3am sharp.
The truly affluent had the option of bringing their own
conveyances. The aristocracy simply arrived at the station in their
personal horse-drawn coach, which was then lifted on to a flat car
and held down with chains, rather as motorists put their cars on
some trains today. The upper classes could thus avoid soiling their
T H E R A I LROA D E X PER I ENCE 147
THIRD-CLASS SATIRE
A cartoon by the French illustrator Honoré Daumier
showed porters lifting third-class passengers, stiff as
frozen cod, out of a car.
petticoats or pantaloons by sitting on cushions used by the masses,

though even they could not escape the smoke and ashes that
enveloped all early travelers. The dilemma facing passengers when
the weather was hot was whether to open the window and risk
wrecking their clothes from the cinders, or keep it closed and swelter.
An infuriated English social reformer and abolitionist, Harriet
Martineau, reported that sparks had burned no fewer than 13 holes
in her gown during a journey in the United States.
In the early days, the ride was bumpy whatever vehicle class
passengers were traveling in. The springs were weak, or nonexistent,
and the primitive track, made up of short rails, was uneven. Worse, the
couplers between the coaches were not rigid, but involved an
arrangement with chains. Every time the train set off or slowed down,
passengers were thrown about. There was no brake mechanism to
prevent the cars from bumping into one another and despite the
padded seats in the superior cars, complaints from the more well-to-
do travelers about their uncomfortable journey were frequent and
sustained. Luckily, the slowness of the trains reduced the severity of

these rough rides, but it was not unknown for the chains to break,
leaving some poor passengers stranded. This explains why the last
coach of the train was soon eqipped with a red light (called a marker)—
its absence would warn signalers that the train was not complete.
The compartment system made it easy for passengers to get on
and off, but its main disadvantage was that people could not move
within the train, so had no access to toilet facilities or refreshments.
When journeys grew longer, trains had to stop at intermediate
stations for “comfort breaks”—not an expression used in the 19th
century—and meals. That was already the case across the Atlantic,
where the design of cars was different from the outset. Interestingly,
some of the first American cars were based on canal-boat rather than
stagecoach designs. These early cars were more practical and usually
more comfortable than their European counterparts. They were
longer and were open plan rather than fitted with compartments,
which reflected the American ethos of equality. (Equality, of course,
only amongst white passengers. Black passengers were segregated
until the second half of the 20th century.) Some cars even had seats
on the roof, open to the elements, but this idea was soon abandoned.
INSIDE CAR INTERIOR

English painter Thomas Musgrave Joy’s 1861 painting
is titled Tickets Please and depicts conductors about
to enter a tightly packed third-class car.
American passenger cars were COMBINED LENGTH OF

similar to long omnibuses: they TRACK IN THE US IN 1840
could accommodate up to 50
people on two-by-two seats
with reversible backs, which
were reasonably comfortable.
Right from the start, there was
a little annex with a hole that
2,796 MILES
(4,500 km)
opened straight out onto the
tracks to serve calls of nature. Relief was only partial. The wheel sets
were relatively close to each other, which meant the ends of the
coaches swung to and fro, inducing dizziness and even vomiting. The
problem was not helped by the fact that there were only four wheels
on the early vehicles, but happily this soon changed. Four-wheel
vehicles gave way to six and then eight, greatly improving stability.
Novelist Charles Dickens, an experienced rail traveler in Britain,
visited the US in 1842 and was pretty dismissive of what he found.
Traveling on the Boston and Lowell Railroad, he was dismayed by the
lack of class differentiation: “There are no first and second class
carriages as with us; but there is a gentlemen’s car and a ladies’ car: the
main distinction between which is that in the first, everybody smokes;
and in the second nobody does.” He noted, too, that there was a “Negro”
car, which was “a great blundering clumsy chest.” Dickens particularly
took against the American habit of spitting—a fellow author described
the central corridor through the train as “an elongated spittoon.” Poor
Dickens also recoiled when his fellow passengers tried to strike up
friendly conversations with him about subjects such as politics, blithely
oblivious to the famed English reluctance to talk to strangers and
fastidiousness about topics of conversation.
Heating in winter was provided by a pot-bellied stove, which was not
only a terrible fire risk when there were mishaps but also according to
Dickens filled the air with what he called “the ghost of smoke.” The
stoves were ineffective, making it too hot for those immediately next to
them, but giving no warmth to those further away. Lighting, too, was
inadequate. Initially, there were lanterns with candles kept alight by the
conductors. The lanterns were placed just above each seat, but gave out
little light. Much better kerosene lamps replaced them by the 1860s.
They hung from the roof and gave adequate lighting for the whole car,
but they too were a significant fire hazard.
Thanks to the open-plan arrangements, American trains attracted

hawkers walking along the car, offering things to read as well as
drinks and snacks. The first hawkers were self-employed young men
who had spotted an opportunity to make money, but later they were
officially sanctioned. Many belonged to the gigantic Union News
Company. They would pass through the trains offering the day’s
newspapers, magazines, sweets, soda pop bottles, and cigarettes.
They announced their arrival in a falsetto voice, compressing their
wares into a single word such as “candycigarettescigars” or
“newspapersmagazines.” Another British writer, Robert Louis
Stevenson, traveling a few years later than Dickens, was much
impressed by these young men and was amazed that he could buy
“soaps, towels, tin washing basins, tin coffee pitchers, coffee, tea,
sugar and tinned eatables, mostly hash or beans and bacon”. It was,
he noted, much more entertaining than a ride on a British train. But
the vendors were not universally welcomed as some ran scams. The
favorite was to sell cheaply bound novels for twice the normal 25
cents, with the promise that one of them contained a $10 bill.
The American open-plan model created another difference from
Europe: conductors went through the train checking and selling
tickets and generally policing the passengers. They were a fearsome
bunch and some, who were often on the same train every day or week,
became well known to their regulars and even beyond. The doyen of
them was Henry Ayers, or “Poppy” as he was generally known,
described as “a huge, genial teddy bear of a man, weighing nearly three
hundred pounds… [who] hovered over his passengers with benevolent
menace.” Ayers achieved fame because he had a fierce dispute over
the use of the emergency cord with his engineer on the Erie Railroad.
The engineer refused to acknowledge that the conductor had ultimate
control over the train. By winning the argument, Ayers established
railway practice that remains universal to this day and went on to
serve the Erie for 30 years. His favorite tale was that he
convinced an old lady who had left her umbrella at
her station that he had organized to have it sent on
BADGE OF OFFICE
Railroad conductors wore official badges
on their uniforms. This one, dated 1880,
is from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
TRAVELING IN STYLE
This luxurious interior of an American railroad
car in 1870 resembles an elegant drawing
room on wheels.
by telegraph. The truth was that lost items were dumped in the
baggage car, so Ayers simply retrieved the umbrella and presented it to
its grateful owner at the next station.
In the early days, train travel in the US was more comfortable than
in Europe because people had the freedom to move about their cars.
There was also an outside area on the last coach, which afforded some
much-needed fresh air in the summer. At first, the connections
between the cars were too difficult for passengers to negotiate safely,
but they soon improved, so people could walk through the whole
train. European cars only began offering the same facility for their
passengers in the last quarter of the 19th century, when trains with
corridors were introduced, but the layout was different. Instead of an
American open plan, the corridor was a passageway at one side of the
car—at first external and used only by rail staff or intrepid passengers,
but later internal. Introducing a corridor marked a significant step
forward in passenger comfort since facilities such as toilets could now
be provided and passengers could have access to a dining car. This
meant that trains no longer had to make intermediate comfort stops.
Although corridor trains became the norm, compartment-type cars
lingered well into the last quarter of the 20th century on some
European local and commuter services.
Turnouts and Sidings

A turnout, or railroad switch, is a track arrangement
that allows one set of rails to connect with another.
The mechanism consists of a pair of moveable tapered
sections of track, known as switch points, which can
be pushed into one of two positions, enabling a train SETTING THE POINTS
Traditionally, switch points
to remain on its course or to divert to another line. were controlled remotely
A common function of a switch is to control access to from interlocking towers.
However, some still are
a siding—a length of track that briefly diverges from a operated by hand—
line, allowing a train to be temporarily housed while particularly those that
control access to sidings
another train passes by. Sidings can also be used for and yards.
storing, loading, and unloading cars, and for holding
maintenance equipment.
Sharing the line

Sidings allow multiple trains
to run on the same routes. They are
used primarily at stations to let trains
vacate the main line so that express
services can pass through, or on
longer stretches of track to enable
freight trains to be passed by faster
passenger services. Safety signals
ensure that only one train occupies
a siding at any one time.
A FREIGHT TRAIN WAITS ON A SIDING, LEAVING

THE MAIN LINE UNOBSTRUCTED
TURNOUTS AND SIDINGS 153
Changing tracks
The key component of a turnout is the the points from one track to the next.
points mechanism, which was invented Most points are now electrically
by English engineer Charles Fox in 1832. operated, but pneumatic versions are
The mechanism is activated by a lever also used on some networks, particularly
connected to a pull rod, which moves underground lines.
Main line Branch line Main line Branch line

open closed closed open
Branch line
No signal for signal
branch line
Switch point Switch point
closed open
Switch stand Switch stand
or lever adjusted
Pull rod Pull rod

extended retracted
Switch point Switch point

open closed
STAYING ON TRACK SWITCHING TO THE BRANCH LINE

The points are set to keep the train on the main The points are set to divert the train onto the
line. The lever is thrown, extending the pull branch line. The lever is adjusted, retracting the
rod to slide the moveable rails across the track, pull rod to bring the left-hand point flush with the
drawing the left-hand point away from the track main track and the right-hand point away from it.
and bringing the right-hand point parallel to it. The signal indicates the right-hand branch is open.
THE INTERLOCKING
TOWER
An interlocking tower is
an operational nerve center
from which signals are sent
to incoming and outgoing
trains and switch points
are opened and closed to
direct railroad traffic. A single
towerman can control an
entire lever frame (left) to
activate all the relevant
signals and switch points.
Temples of Steam
T HE LATTER 70 YEARS of the 19th century are commonly

known as the railroad age. But it would perhaps be more apt to
call the period the railroad station age. Stations were a highly visible
presence for travelers, and the first glimpse of a new place for visitors.
Railroads were a revolutionary intrusion into people’s lives. They
introduced a whole new world of speed, noise, and bustle, all rather
frightening to people more used to the gentle clip-clop of horse-
drawn travel. But the vast majority of travelers were oblivious to
the marvels of engineering that had gone into building the lines, the
bridges, viaducts, cuttings, and other structures. The station was
the passengers’ point of contact with the iron road. Architects had to
hit the right note—the stations needed to be solid and reassuring,
laying a balm of soothing normality over an unprecedented and
therefore alarming experience. Moreover, the buildings had to reflect
the importance of the railroad company responsible for the station,
and its recognition of the town or society it served.
It took only a decade after the launch of the railroads in 1830 for a
quartet of stations to be built worthy of the term “Temples of Steam.”
The progenitors were the two men who pioneered the modern long-
distance railroad, Robert Stephenson and Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
Stephenson ensured that both terminals of the railroad he built
between London and Birmingham would be worthy of his
extraordinary engineering achievement. Stephenson’s architect, the
eminent Philip Hardwicke, built a noble Grecian-style building at
Curzon Street in Birmingham. At Euston in London he constructed
a Great Hall of elegant grandeur, with the world’s first boardroom
upstairs, but unfortunately the heavy Doric arch in front of the
station overshadowed the graceful proportions of the Hall.
Brunel could not be outdone by Stephenson. In the early 1840s, his
own design for a terminus at Bristol was unexceptional, but 10 years
later he worked with a distinguished architect, Matthew Digby Wyatt,
to produce Paddington Station in London. Brunel’s innovative glass-
roofed train shed was complemented by Wyatt’s station buildings and
130-room Great Western Hotel, a handsome Renaissance building,
and the largest hotel in the country at that time. The hotel and the
separation of the station buildings and train shed served as a model
TEMPLES OF STEAM 155
for many others – most effectively at St. Pancras in London where the
contrasting neogothic hotel and glass-roofed train shed were larger
and more dramatic than anywhere else in the world.
Stations were not just the temples of a new railroad age; along with
town halls, they showcased the character of a town or city. Railroad
companies and their architects continued to emphasize solidity but
styles varied wildly as every country reflected its “inner self.” Scots went
in for Highland style, Germans chose a heavy, Teutonic look, while
Spanish and Portuguese stations recalled their ancient Moorish past.
Americans went furthest in providing a variety of styles. As railroad
historian Lucius Beebe remarked, with only slight exaggeration:
“Passengers were set down in storybook settings, Grecian temples,
Moorish arches, French chateaux, the tombs of Egyptian dynasts,
Turkish mosques, Palladian porticos, Gothic castles and Italian palazzi.”
The beautiful Antwerp Central station in Belgium is thought to reflect
so many different architectural styles as to be unclassifiable; conversely,
Flemish architectural style can be seen in the early-20th century
Dunedin station in New Zealand. Whatever the style, reactionaries
hated the new station buildings. The 19th-century British art critic John
Ruskin was appalled at their pretensions to architectural beauty since
they represented industry, which, for him, was inherently hideous.
The grandiose Temples of Steam formed only a minute proportion
of the hundreds of thousands of stations built around the world
during the 19th century. The smaller ones were often delightful
examples of local architecture, sometimes standardized by the
railway company itself, such as the handsome villas spread over much
of western France. In Russia, on the Trans-Siberian Railway, there
were five classes of station. The highest class were built of brick and
had heated waiting rooms, while the lowest were little more than
huts to shelter waiting passengers from the elements.
American stations were generally built in the middle of the city.
Thousands of small towns owed their very existence to the railroad,
which often ran down the main street. Stations were at the heart of the
“Railway termini are our gates to

the glorious and the unknown”
E.M. FORSTER, AUTHOR, 1910
community, full of “retired gentlemen, idlers of all kinds, champion

talkers, crackerbarrel philosophers.” Although there was powerful
opposition to lines and stations near some city centers, in Europe,
historic York allowed its ancient city walls to be breached to admit the
iron horse, while in Cologne the station abuts the city’s historic
cathedral. However, if a station was not built in the center it simply
resulted in the creation of a new, important part of town. The railroad
companies also created their own towns, simply by locating the
enormous workshops needed to build and maintain the trains there.
The shape and size of stations outside Europe and the United States
often reflected the tastes of imperial masters or European immigrants,
notably in Canada where there was a remarkable mix of French and
Scottish heritage. In India, the station and its associated buildings such
as the engine sheds formed part of an elaborate social and industrial
complex, planned by the British colonists. The most impressive example
of this is the massive Victoria Terminus (now renamed the Chhatrapati
VICTORIA TERMINUS, MUMBAI

Pictured in 1910, the splendid Victoria
Terminus is modeled on St. Pancras
Station in London. It is still in use today.
Shivaji Terminus) in Mumbai, completed in 1888. In South America,

however, architectural roots varied. Argentinian stations, usually built
with British money, reflected their financiers’ tastes, but in neighboring
Uruguay locals built stations in their own style. Stations could also fall
prey to triumphalism: when the Prussians retook Alsace and Lorraine
from the French in 1871, they imposed their own design on a new station
at Metz in Lorraine, complete with statues of Teutonic warriors.
Railroad stations provided the stage for poignant scenes of farewell
and reunion, especially during wars. The departure to the Western
Front of waves of soldiers from Waterloo Station in London and the Gare
de l’Est in Paris left a lasting impression. Then, in 1939, millions of
children were evacuated from cities across Europe, helped on to trains
by their distraught parents. The emotional power of the station was not
lost on film producers either, from the tear-jerking family reunion at a
small country station in The Railway Children, to the highly charged
meetings in a station café of Brief Encounter. The world’s first film, A Train
Entering a Station, made by Louis Lumière, depicted a train heading directly
toward the camera, causing some of the audience to flee in terror. Artists
were inspired by stations, too, such as Claude Monet, who painted a
whole series of canvases at the Gare St. Lazare, just below the Parisian
café where he and his Impressionist colleagues used to meet.
Stations also created new markets. Two major companies, WH
Smith in Britain and Hachette in France, were founded to cater to
travelers’ needs for reading matter—and so gave birth to the much
despised but highly popular “railway novel.” However, the glory of a
major station could be marred by the inadequacy of the catering. In the
half-century before the arrival of special dining or buffet cars on trains,
passengers had to rely on refreshments or even whole meals snatched
at stations. The owners of these establishments naturally exploited
their monopoly. However, Europe led the way in station food, especially
France. In Ian Fleming’s novel Goldfinger, James Bond stayed at railway
hotels because, “It was better than an even chance that the Buffet de la
Gare would be excellent.” Today, the sumptuously decorated Train
Bleu restaurant at the Gare de Lyon in Paris is justly famous, as is the
Oyster Bar at Grand Central Terminal in New York City.
By the end of the 19th century, station architects—and the companies
behind them—were confident enough not only to design afresh, but
also to use architecture to express a political, social, or national vision.
The modernist station with exciting clean lines designed by Eliel
Saarinen for Helsinki, Finland, in 1919 announced not only the arrival of
the modernist movement but also proclaimed Finland’s newly declared
independence from Russia (1917). And after World War I, the French
gloried in local Norman and Breton styles in a number of provincial
stations, while at Perpignan in French Catalonia they erected a statue of
Spanish surrealist artist Salvador Dalì. Even the new station at Milan,
Italy, in 1930 was Mussolini’s statement of fascist grandeur.
World War II destroyed many great stations, but postwar
reconstruction programs included the last true Temple of Steam, the
Roma Termini in Rome, Italy. As the motorcar usurped the train,
however, stations became neglected. The train services in many
countries were scaled back, with some routes and stations permanently
closed. A few stations were rebuilt but others were demolished—the
most tragic victim was Pennsylvania Station in New York. The worst
officially sanctioned railroad vandalism occurred when the Belgian
railroads carved a cutting through the heart of Brussels to link the
stations to the north and south, inflicting a permanent wound on the
city. However, some disused stations were converted for other worthy
purposes, such as the Gare d’Orsay in Paris, which now houses the
Musée d’Orsay, a national art gallery, or Manchester Central Station in
Britain, which was transformed into a convention and concert venue. In
the US, some great union stations, such as St. Louis, survived without
any trains by becoming shopping, hotel, and entertainment complexes.
Today, many of the stations that survived destruction during the
motorcar boom of the 1960s are now flourishing, with their architectural
heritage preserved. St. Pancras Station in London is a splendid example
of the renaissance not just of trains but also of their stations. Until the
end of the 20th century, it was best known as a decaying architectural
masterpiece, which had been saved from demolition in the 1960s, but
housed only a derelict hotel and a grimy set of platforms. Today, thanks
to a substantial renovation completed in 2007, it is a world-beater. In
Spain, the magnificent Atocha station in Madrid underwent a rather
unique rebuild; originally designed in collaboration with French
engineer Gustave Eiffel, during the 1990s its striking main hall was
converted into a huge botanical garden, complete with turtles. Stations
such as St. Pancras, Grand Central Terminal in New York, Kyoto Station
in Japan, the Berlin Hauptbahnhof in Germany, and Toronto Union
Station in Canada are no longer used simply by travelers passing
through, but have become destinations in their own right.
GRAND CENTRAL
Seen here in 1930, the majestic
concourse at Grand Central
Terminal in Manhattan looks
remarkably similar today, thanks
to a loving restoration.
Railroad Signal Telegraphy

The telegraph transformed railroad signaling, making it possible
for train operators to send messages ahead of trains for the first time.
American inventor Samuel Morse devised the earliest experimental
telegraph, and the Cooke and Wheatstone needle telegraph, a later
model, first entered commercial use in 1838 when it was adopted by
the Great Western Railway in Britain. The system gained wider
acceptance after its dramatic role in apprehending British murderer
John Tawell in 1845: he had been seen boarding a train at Slough, and
this information was telegraphed ahead to Paddington Station, where
he was arrested. In 1844, Morse’s telegraph transmitted the words
“What hath God wrought” from Baltimore to Washington, DC, and
brought about a revolution on the US railroads.
The needle telegraph

Inventor William Fothergill Cooke and
scientist Charles Wheatstone patented their
five-needle telegraph in 1837. It consisted of
a receiver with needles that were moved by
electromagnetic coils to point to letters on a
board. Each letter was communicated via two
currents flowing down two wires, causing the
receiving telegraph’s needles to swing to the
left or right. Six letters were omitted—C, J,
Q, U, X, and Z—a limitation that caused
confusion when identifying the murderer
Tawell (see above), who was described as
wearing a “KWAKER” (Quaker) coat.
Needle COOKE AND WHEATSTONE

swings FIVE-NEEDLE TELEGRAPH (1837)
to left A
or right
B D
E F G READING THE MESSAGE

The five-needle telegraph was popular with
H I K L
users as it did not require any knowledge
of codes: two of the five needles pointed to
one of 20 letters laid out in a diamond
M N O P
pattern on the receiver to spell out words.
P S T Over time, the system was simplified to two
Letter needles and then to a single needle, mainly
V W
located by to reduce the cost of replacing wires as they
following Y deteriorated. However, systems with fewer
lines from needles required complex codes, so
two needles telegraphy became a specialized job.
R A I LROA D SIGNA L T EL EGR A PH Y 161
Morse’s telegraph
Invented in 1835, Morse’s first telegraph
used a pencil point attached to an
electromagnetic pendulum. His partner
Alfred Vail suggested using a lever and
armature to print a code of dots and
dashes—the precursor to Morse code—
sending the message “a patient waiter is no
loser” in 1838. This system, patented in 1840,
was soon adopted in the US both for railroad
signaling and general use, with lines built
alongside new railroads. It was cheaper and MORSE KEY SOUNDER (1875)
simpler to use than the needle telegraph, The Morse telegraph had one wire and an
especially once adapted to an audio system. earth connection, and used a single current
switched on or off to send dots and dashes.
REPAIRING THE WIRES

A lineman repairs a telegraph
line at Billericay, Essex in the UK
in 1932. The telegraph remained
integral to railroad signaling, and
was still in use as late as the 1970s.
Monopolies and
Railroad Barons
A CCUSTOMED AS WE ARE TO THE NOTION of national

railroads and large rail monopolies, it is hard to imagine today
that the early railroads were made up of hundreds of small
companies, each serving its own limited local area. Local
entrepreneurs created these railroads, largely from a desire to
improve transportation for their own goods rather than as a result of
any grand vision. However, as the railroads expanded, they became
more ambitious in scope, and economies of scale became evident.
Not only was it convenient for people to travel long journeys on one
train, it was also more profitable for the train companies to operate
in this way. It was relatively cheaper to carry goods over a longer
distance, as loading and unloading them was expensive.
Lines gradually grew longer. In Britain, the London and Birmingham
Railway was the first railroad more than 100 miles (160km) long, and a
civil engineering project far larger than any that had gone before. Robert
Stephenson, son of George Stephenson (see pp.22–29), was appointed
chief engineer in 1833 and the railroad, London’s first main line, opened
five years later in 1838. Other, longer, railroads soon followed, such as the
Great Western from London to Bristol, constructed by engineer
Isambard Kingdom Brunel between 1835 and 1841 at a cost of $32.5
million (£6.5 million), and the London and Southampton, completed in
1840. In the United States, both the pioneering railroads—the 136-mile
(219-km) Charleston and Hamburg, opened in 1833, and the Baltimore
and Ohio, whose first section ran from 1830—were ambitious projects
that extended far inland from the Atlantic Coast port cities they served.
The men who managed the railroad companies were generally
enterprising and progressive, and could see the benefits of far-reaching
railroad networks. As the railroads became established, these men
dreamed up ever-grander plans, and railroad promoters raised
financing for their construction. These longer railroads began to
sprout branches, and the companies grew. Given the advantage of
large networks, it was inevitable that railroad companies should come
together first to provide joint services. However, even as they extended
their reach, the railroad companies remained distinct until
MONOP OL I E S A N D R A I LROA D BA RONS 163
THE BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD

Among the first American lines, the B&O was also
part of the heyday of the railroad barons and the
battles between the first large companies. Pictured
here is the early B&O locomotive Atlantic in the 1830s.
competition between them made the creation of monopolies

attractive and they began to merge—a process that accelerated
when railroads fell on hard times, and rivals took over their
struggling competitors.
Consolidated railroad companies soon became the biggest
enterprises in the world. In many respects, their development prefigured
the growth of capitalism. Before the railroads, there were no large
companies in any industry, with the exception of quasi-government
organizations such as the Dutch East India Company. Factories were
still just small buildings where goods were made, owned by local
entrepreneurs and supplying their immediate area. These firms
employed local people and were part of the local community.
The railroads were a totally new and different sort of enterprise.
To begin with, they stretched dozens and later hundreds of miles,
taking them across many different localities. Then, they demanded a
new style of management with complex organizational structures.
Furthermore, the companies needed bosses with vision and great
ability, able to see the bigger picture as well as being industrious. In
Britain, already off to a head start with the railroads, the first larger-
scale, consolidated, companies began to emerge. The new companies

were powerful and self-important, as testified by the grand stations they
erected in major cities (see pp.152–57). The first mega-company to spring
from the dozens of smaller railroads was the Midland Railway, created
by entrepreneur George Hudson (see pp.54–55). In 1844, Hudson created
the Midland by consolidating three lines: the North Midland Railway,
the Midland Counties Railway, and the Birmingham and Derby Junction
Railway, all of which converged at Derby. The new, combined railroad
created the core of a line that ran all the way from London to York,
offering a more convenient service to its passengers, with fewer changes
of train. Hudson had also built the Newcastle and Darlington Junction
Railway, which he now linked to the rest of his network via York, so that
he had control of more than 1,000 miles (1,600km) of railroad. He
continued to consolidate the network throughout the 1840s by taking
over other smaller Midlands lines. In 1842, Hudson cleverly created the
Railway Clearing House, an organization that enabled all the railroad
companies—of which there were now more than a hundred in
Britain—to collect revenues from each other when passengers used
more than one company’s trains on a journey. Until then, passengers
had been obliged to change trains and buy a new ticket at each stage
of the journey. Sadly, for all his entrepreneurial genius, Hudson
turned out to be a fraudster. The ticket-sharing plan, however, long
outlasted his downfall and the collapse of his railroad empire.
Despite the obvious advantages of consolidation, British politicians
were reluctant to let the railroads merge, fearing that monopolies
would exploit the public. However, the financial weakness of some
railroads forced the government to accept the idea, especially at times
of economic downturn, so throughout the mid-19th century,
companies continued to merge.
One of the merger beneficiaries, the London and North Western
Railway (LNWR), was, for a while the world’s biggest company,
employing 15,000 people at its peak. Its brilliant manager, Captain Mark
Huish, was a former Indian Army officer. He shrewdly negotiated
takeovers, managed the company in an innovative manner, and
introduced novel accounting methods essential for the company’s size.
The LNWR was created in July 1846 by the merger of the Grand Junction
Railway, the London and Birmingham Railway, and the Manchester
and Birmingham Railway. This created a network of 350 miles (560km).
The core route connected London with Birmingham, Crewe, Chester,
Liverpool, and Manchester. Although it covered less ground than rivals

such as the Midland, the LNWR offered the best route between London
and the main towns of northwest England.
Once it was in a position of strength, the LNWR bullied rivals into
forced mergers or disadvantageous deals to run on their tracks. But
the bully-boy tactics did not always work. Two small railroads that
combined to run on a shorter route between Birmingham and
Chester than their big rival were warned off by Huish: “I need not say
if you should be unwise enough to encourage such a proceeding, it
must result in a general fight…” To his alarm, they resisted the threat,
fought a three-year battle through the courts, and, surprisingly, won.
However, this was an exception. For the most part, the big bullies
effectively quashed their smaller rivals.
In continental Europe, major networks were soon created from the
plethora of companies that had started running rail services. In France,
six big regional companies were formed with government encouragement
between 1858 and 1862. The most ambitious, the Paris–Lyon–
Mediterranée (PLM) , soon extended over the border to Switzerland and
Italy, creating an international network. The Rothschild banking family
owned the PLM, along with a second French company, the Nord, and it
looked for a time as if the Rothschilds would establish themselves as the
dominant force in European railroads. At one point they also controlled
the Austrian Südbahn, which included the Semmering Railway (see
p.102–107), and had concessions on various Italian lines. After unification,
however, Italy prevented the Rothschilds from expanding their railroad
empire and effectively blocked the creation of “the biggest international
railway company that had ever been seen.” Instead, four big Italian
companies were formed, but the poverty of the country and its difficult
PARIS–LYON–
MEDITERRANÉE
One of the big six
railroad companies in
France, and one of the
first international
companies, the Paris–
Lyon–Mediterranée
promoted its services
to tourists with posters
designed by artists of
the day.
terrain, with the Apennines running down its spine, made it hard to
make a profit. The nation suffered a railroad crisis every few years and,
unwilling to allow foreign takeovers, Italy in 1905 became one of the first
nations to nationalize its railroad system. In the early days of Swiss
railroads, meanwhile, the plutocrat Alfred Escher (see p.55) more or less
oversaw the explosion in railroad construction from the 1850s, and
became so powerful that he was nicknamed “King Alfred.”
The American railroads soon eclipsed all others in scale. The
distances to be covered were huge, so big companies such as the Erie
and New York Central Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad emerged
early in railroad history. When the first transcontinental was completed
in 1869 (see pp.120–25), the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads
became the railroad giants. After them, a series of American railroads
earned that accolade as railroad barons consolidated the network.
By 1900, seven companies controlled most of the US railroads.
Many of their proprietors became infamous, among them Jay Gould
and his son George, J.P. Morgan, Edward Harriman, and the
Vanderbilts. William, the younger Vanderbilt, demonstrated the
attitude of the new railroad
barons to their passengers when
asked by a reporter why a popular
fast train was no longer
operating: “The public be
damned! … I don’t take any
stock in this silly nonsense about
working for anybody but our
own,” he is alleged to have
replied. Daniel Drew, one of the
first of these “robber barons”—a
term applied by Atlantic Monthly
in 1870 to the new breed of
capitalists—was also one of the
OUR ROBBER BARONS,

PUCK, 1882
In this cartoon from satirical
magazine Puck, “R. Road
Monopolist” Jay Gould, William
Vanderbilt, and other barons divvy
up their spoils by “Castle Monopoly.”
“We hear now on all sides the

term ‘Robber Barons’ applied to
some of the great capitalists”
ATLANTIC MONTHLY, 1870
biggest rogues. As company treasurer of the Erie, Drew agreed several

times for the company to borrow money against newly issued shares,
and then used his position as an insider to profit from the trade in
these shares—insider trading was not regulated at the time.
J.P. Morgan was the most successful of these entrepreneurs, forging a
railroad empire that stretched across the US by taking over ailing
companies and reorganizing them. Unlike Drew, Morgan actually
improved the railroads he acquired. So too did Harriman, who became
known as the “greatest rail baron in America.” His background, as with
most of these moguls, was modest: he started out as a messenger boy,
but made money on the stock exchange and invested in railroads. He
boosted his assets by purchasing rolling stock, improving tracks, and
establishing good management. His first major acquisition was the
Illinois Central Railroad. After the Panic of 1893—the last of a series of
major 19th-century recessions caused by boom and bust in the business
cycle—he added the massive Union Pacific to his set. Harriman made it
profitable by straightening out bends in the track—many added
unnecessarily by the builders to take advantage of government
subsidies—and reducing grades, and it became a moneymaker. By the
turn of the century, Harriman controlled more track than any individual
in the history of American railroads. He was the baron of barons.
All too soon, the advent of the motorcar brought about the decline of
the railroads, and empires were broken up or bailed out by the
government. In the US, however, one last pair of barons emerged in the
1920s: the Van Sweringens. This strange pair of reclusive brothers were
property developers who bought a railroad for its development potential
and ended up with an empire that included the Erie, the Chesapeake
and Ohio Railroad, and the Pere Marquette Railroad, which operated a
series of lines in the Great Lakes area. Following the 1929 crash, however,
their empire was broken up even more quickly than they had built it up.
With this, the era of the big railroad barons finally came to an end.
Building Bridges
As the railroads expanded, railroad bridges were erected to enable lines
to follow the most direct routes possible. Engineers devised a range of
architectural and engineering strategies for overcoming the obstacles
of local geography—from vaulting brick viaducts spanning valley
floors to iron suspension bridges that dangled tracks above rivers and
gorges. Concrete and steel are now the materials of choice, but the
ingenuity of modern designs is no less impressive than the elegant
blends of function and form deployed by the early railroad builders.
The Tangiwai disaster

New Zealand’s worst ever rail bridge
disaster occurred on Christmas Eve, 1953,
when 151 lives were lost in the catastrophic
failure of the Whangaehu River bridge near
Tangiwai, in the center of the North
Island. A mudflow from a collapsed dam
destroyed a supporting pier of the beam
bridge (see panel, opposite), which gave
way under the weight of an express train.
BUILDING BRIDGES 169
ENGINEERING MARVEL
At the time of its completion in
1890, the Forth Bridge in Scotland Types of bridge
was the longest steel bridge in Different types of railroad bridges have been
the world. Its three 330ft-(100m-)
high trapezoid cantilevers support developed to meet geographical and economic
the railroad at a height of 151ft constraints. While there are multiple variations
(46m) for the 1.6-mile (2.5-km) on—and combinations of—each design, the basic
crossing of the Firth of Forth types of bridge can be grouped into four categories:
sea inlet. beam, arch, cantilever, and suspension.
THROUGH-TRUSS BEAM DECK-TRUSS BEAM
BEAM BRIDGE
The simplest of all bridges, a beam bridge, consists of a
“beam” or girder laid across a gap, supported at each end by
piers and often strengthened by a truss. A through-truss
design uses iron or steel struts joined together in triangular
sections to form the load-bearing superstructure, which
carries the railroad track beneath. A deck truss uses the same
arrangement of struts, but supports the beam from below.
THROUGH-ARCH CANTILEVER
ARCH BRIDGE CANTILEVER BRIDGE

A classic arch bridge supports Built from sections that are
the railroad from below, but supported at one end only,
in the more sophisticated cantilever bridges have the
through-arch design, the top advantage of not needing
of the arch rises above the “falsework” (temporary
deck, suspending the railroad supports) in construction,
from vertical cables or struts. so are ideal for wide crossings.
CLASSIC SUSPENSION CABLE-STAYED SUSPENSION
SUSPENSION BRIDGE
Well suited to long crossings in exposed, windy locations,
suspension bridges make use of cables to support the deck.
The classic design stretches a cable laterally between one or
more towers, with vertical suspension cables to support the
deck. A cable-stayed bridge suspends the deck directly from
one or more towers via a series of angled suspension cables.
The Pullman Phenomenon
T HE NAME OF ENGINEER GEORGE PULLMAN is still used to

refer to the sleeping car he developed for rail passengers. He was
the American “genius of the bed on wheels,” who destroyed all his
competitors to establish a monopoly in the US by the end of the 19th
century. As with many such legends, the original idea was not his,
but Pullman made it his own.
It was inevitable that the first sleeping cars would be developed in
the US rather than in Europe, as journey times were longer and trains
were slower because of the sharper curves and higher grades of the
tracks. At first, trains simply stopped for the night and passengers
stayed in local hotels and inns. This was clearly both unsatisfactory
and inefficient, so the first sleeping car was introduced on the
Cumberland Valley Railroad in Pennsylvania in 1839. Unfortunately,
it did not provide a comfortable night’s sleep. The sleeping
accommodation consisted of a couple of cars, each with four sets of
three-tiered berths. They were no more than hard boards without
bedding or mattresses, which were then folded away during the day.
A few years later, the New York and Erie Railroad devised an
equally uncomfortable solution. Two cars, known as “diamond cars”
because of the shape of their windows, were equipped with iron rods
that could be used to link facing seats to create a basic bed. The
cushions were made of horsehair cloth that penetrated
all but the thickest clothing and were invariably
infested with all kinds of ravenous insect. As if that
were not bad enough, the condition of the track,
with its short, badly laid rails, made the experience
akin to “sleeping on a runaway train,” according
to one early passenger.
By the 1850s, matters had begun to improve.
Several railroads advertised improved sleeping
accommodation based on an idea by Webster
GEORGE MORTIMER PULLMAN

Born in New York in 1831, Pullman achieved
success at a relatively young age. He had
developed his first railroad sleeping
car before the age of 30.
THE PULLMAN PHENOMENON 171
Wagner, a stationmaster on the THE VALUE OF PULLMAN’S

New York Central. He went on to PATENTS IN 1875
found the Wagner Palace Car
Company, a rival of Pullman.
Wagner developed the idea of a
coach with a single tier of berths
$100,000
and bedding closets at each end, a (TODAY, $2 MILLION,
definite improvement on all its OR £1.2 MILLION)
predecessors. Several other
competitors emerged, building sleeping cars to a variety of designs. But
it was Pullman who transformed nighttime travel on trains, making it
not only comfortable but even respectable.
Like many railroad entrepreneurs, Pullman had already been
successful in a different enterprise—that of moving houses (not
their contents, the buildings themselves). Several low-lying houses
in New York State were in the way of a planned extension to the
Erie Canal, so Pullman, along with his father, contrived to move
them to higher ground by putting them on wheels. Pullman then
moved to Chicago, where he started a fledgling railcar business in
1858, building two cars for the Chicago and Alton Railroad that
provided upper and lower sleeping berths.
The radical aspect of Pullman’s design was that the upper berth
was suspended from the ceiling by ropes and pulleys. When not in use,
it could be hauled up to the roof, leaving plenty of seating space during
the day—unlike older designs, in which the bunk was fixed and made
life uncomfortable for passengers when they were not in bed. Curtains
around the berths created privacy, but these cars were still crude
affairs. Candles provided lighting and a wood stove generated heat, but
both were a great fire risk given the large number of flapping curtains.
Each car accommodated 20 people, and blankets and pillows were
provided, although not sheets. The experiment was successful. Soon
the cars, which ran between Bloomington, Illinois, and Chicago, filled
up every night. The only problem was dirty footwear. The conductors
had to convince the male passengers—who were the majority of
travelers at this time—to take off their boots at night so that they
didn’t soil or damage the bedding. There was a great reluctance to do
so, presumably because of fear of theft, so for many years every
Pullman car carried notices politely requesting, “Please take off your
boots before retiring.”
PULLMAN PALACE CAR

Nicknamed “palace cars,” these
sleeping cars were modeled on the
packet boats that a young George
Pullman had seen traveling on the
Erie Canal.
In 1861, in association with local

authorities, Pullman supervised
the raising of many of Chicago’s
buildings in an attempt to
improve the city’s street
sewerage system. His most
spectacular feat was the four-
storey Tremont House Hotel,
the tallest building in Chicago at
the time. The hotel was in line
for demolition, but Pullman
devised a clever method to save
it. He put the whole building on 5,000 jacks, then a team of 1,200 workers
turned the screws 180° each time Pullman gave the signal. They
successfully raised the hotel by 6ft (1.8m), while the house band
continued playing and the hotel guests happily ate their lunch.
Perhaps raising the Tremont House Hotel helped to inspire Pullman
to create a moving hotel for rail passengers. In 1863, he set about
building what he claimed, with some justification, would be the finest
and most luxurious sleeping car ever. Pullman had realized that he
needed to attract the rich and famous, and his efforts were rewarded
with good fortune. His new car, called the Pioneer, cost $20,000 to build,
perhaps four times the cost of any other railroad car at the time. Mary
Todd Lincoln, the First Lady, saw it on a visit in early 1865 and was
enchanted by the style and elegance of the luxurious train, with its
hand-carved seats and panels, and thick pile carpet. When she was
called upon to organize the funeral of her assassinated husband a few
months later, she remembered the car, and it was used as the hearse for
the funeral procession along the Chicago and Alton Railroad.
The Pioneer attracted national attention, and soon Pullman began
building cars for other railroad companies. Before long, many other
railroad companies, such as the Michigan Central, the Burlington,
and the Great Western, were attaching luxurious Pullman cars to
their trains. Pullman’s company also sold the tickets for the berths,
which cost 50 cents more than the railroad’s own sleeping
accommodation, but were far superior. Passengers were carried in
comfort in Pullman sleepers to almost every part of the US. The cars
were all built to the same design, equipped for both day and night
travel, and served by Pullman’s employees. It was a great business
model, and highly profitable as Pullman did not have to pay any of
the costs of hauling the trains or using the tracks.
Oddly, despite the luxurious surroundings, the Pullman cars were
inferior to those in Europe in one key respect: they did not provide the
same level of privacy. Pullman’s design was open plan, with makeshift
folding seats, pull-down berths, only curtains for privacy, and nothing
to stop a loud snorer from keeping the whole car awake. In Europe,
compartments were retained, containing up to six beds on three levels,
although a few open-plan cars were introduced for third-class
passengers, notably on the Trans-Siberian Railway (see pp.180–89). The
open-plan design survived in the US up until the second half of
the 20th century, and can be seen in several famous scenes in the Billy
Wilder classic comedy Some Like It Hot, starring Marilyn Monroe.
Although the cars were popular, some commentators disapproved of
such close-quarters living arrangements.
In 1867, Pullman developed a combination sleeping-and-eating
car, with a kitchen at one end and removable tables set between the
seats at mealtimes. Although this was not the first time that meals
had been provided on board trains, the quality, Pullman’s selling
point, was undoubtedly superior to anything that had gone before.
Sugar-cured ham was 40 cents, a Welsh rarebit 50 cents, and steak
with potatoes just 60 cents—cheap even at the time. Pullman was a
great publicist and introduced his first hotel car on a journey
“It is considered tolerable that

[women] should lie with the legs of
a strange, disrobing man dangling
within a foot of their noses”
KARL BAEDECKER, GUIDEBOOK AUTHOR, DESCRIBING PULLMAN’S COACHES
LINCOLN’S FUNERAL TRAIN

Hundreds of thousands of people lined the
railroad as Lincoln’s funeral train passed
by, providing Pullman with excellent
publicity and many new customers.
around the eastern US from New York to Chicago that took seven
days. Next, he put self-contained dining cars on trains. The first was
called Delmonico, after an eminent restauranteur of that name.
Pullman tried it out on the Chicago and Alton, his home railroad,
on which he always tested his ideas. It was another great success,
and Pullman subsequently both built dining cars for other railroads
and operated them himself on some lines. The selection of meals
for sale on the best trains was sumptuous. The hotel cars on the
Chicago-Omaha service in the 1870s offered a choice of 15 seafood
and fish dishes, together with 37 meat courses, including a huge
variety of game. One only wonders how often the waiters had to
say: “Sorry, that’s not available today.”
While Pullman’s customers greatly enjoyed the quality of service,
it was a terrible idea to die on one of his trains. Pullman ruled that if
a passenger passed away, the corpse had to be put off at the next
station, regardless of whether the town had an undertaker, leaving
the traveling companions of the deceased to deal with the situation.
Fortunately, most of the attendants were more compassionate than
Pullman, and would ensure the body was dispatched at one of the
larger towns, where funeral facilities were more likely to be available.
Later, Pullman devised simpler cars, which were cheaper but still
clean and comfortable with good service. Whatever the level of luxury,
the attendants were always black and male, and all known as “George.”
At first, they were not paid and relied on tips to earn a living. Although
this changed later, tips remained a key part of their wages.
It was a tough job, according to one historian: “a cross between a
concierge, bellhop, valet, housekeeper, mechanic, babysitter, and
security guard.” To make it tougher, Pullman sent inspectors incognito,
to ensure that the attendants carried out their tasks properly. These
inspectors would “mislay” jewelry, and the female ones would even
make romantic overtures to tempt the attendants into breaking the
rules. Attendants who failed to respond appropriately were fired
instantly. Despite the many indignities, being an attendant was a stable
and reasonably well-paid job, so was much sought-after.
By the early 1870s, Pullman had become, according to one railroad
historian, “the foremost industrial name in the United States.” He
was to remain so for more than 20 years. Pullmans were introduced
in Europe and Asia, too, but it was the dining-car concept that
really caught on. Pullman’s influence spread outside the US, though
TRAVELING IN STYLE
This 1910 poster promotes the
comforts of Pullman Palace dining
cars on the Chicago and Alton
Railroad, the first railroad Pullman
ever worked on.
railroad companies tended to

provide their own sleeping cars
or use those of Pullman’s rival.
Pullman’s cars also spawned
the trend for luxury that was
continued by the Palace on
Wheels in India, the Blue Train
in Africa, and most famously
on the Orient Express (see
pp.190–97).
The name of Pullman also
lives on in a town he built east
of Chicago to house the workers
at his factory. The factory is
long abandoned but the pleasant, well-laid-out houses survive. The
housing, however, was a source of friction between Pullman and his
employees. When the economic panic of 1893 reduced demand for
new cars, Pullman announced layoffs in the factory, but refused to
reduce the rents on the houses he provided for them. A bitter strike
ensued and spread across the country after 250,000 railworkers joined
the action in sympathy. Violence broke out in several cities across the
US and the strike eventually collapsed, but it left a bitter legacy.
Pullman’s reputation was so tarnished among workers that when he
died, his family arranged for his remains to be placed in a lead-lined
mahogany coffin, which was then sealed inside a block of concrete for
fear that it would be dug up by angry trade unionists. It was not a
comfortable end for a man who brought a good night’s sleep and a
decent hot meal to millions of rail passengers.
Railroads
Come of Age
TEE SAPHIR
CLASS VT 11.5
DIESEL (DMU), 1957
B y the last quarter of the 19th century, the iron road had become so
profitable that many railroad companies were using their profits to
create new lines. It was an adventurous period that saw the construction
of many extraordinary railroads, including the Trans-Siberian—a
5,750-mile (9,250-km) line between Moscow and Vladivostok, which
remains the longest railroad in the world.
Railroad technology was now tried and tested, and promoters
were driving it to its limits. In South America, several lines were built
through the Andes to help exploit the region’s mineral wealth—
becoming not only the highest railroad lines in the world, but also the
most spectacular, cutting through mountains and running along
perilous cliffs and precipices. In India, the British desire for a cooler
climate in summer led to the construction of a series of narrow-gauge
hill railroads that climbed slowly but surely up the steep inclines far
quicker than the road traffic ever had. One of the most ambitious ideas
was to run a railroad line across the whole of Africa, from Cape Town
to Cairo. Cecil Rhodes, the prime minister of Cape Colony (in what is
today South Africa), had hoped to link the whole continent by a
railroad that traveled through only British colonies, but was stymied
by difficulties with construction, lack of finance, and the unwillingness
of the British government to support the plan.
It was also a time in which services were greatly improved to
encourage passengers (particularly the rich) to use the trains. The most
notable luxury service was the Orient Express, which crossed the whole of
Europe from Paris to Constantinople (Istanbul). In the United States,
competition between railroads led to the launch of rival services between
New York and Chicago, offering the red carpet treatment to their
passengers. And further south, in Florida, the “overseas express” to Key
West—one of the most astonishing railroads ever built—was completed
by Henry Flagler. It was an exciting time for planners and passengers alike.
180 R A I L ROA DS COM E OF AGE
The Trans-Siberian
Railway
W HEN PRINCESS MARIA VOLKONSKY sped across Russia

from Moscow to join her husband in exile in 1827, it took
23 days before she saw the churches of Irkutsk, the capital of eastern
Siberia, looming out of the snowy atmosphere. That was extremely
fast by contemporary standards, and she had traveled night and day
on the trans-Siberian Trakt—a crude road that was easier to travel in
winter. At other times of the year, when the road was muddy, travelers
could take up to nine months to reach Irkutsk, which was barely two
thirds of the way to Vladivostok, the port on the Pacific that would
become the terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Siberia had long been equated with exile and little else. It was a
distant part of Russia, a huge region encompassing all Russia east of the
Ural mountains. A spartan land, its small population was concentrated
on a few river and road arteries, and was mostly employed to maintain
the Trakt or guard the territory. They were supplemented by two types
of exiles: criminals sent to Siberia as an alternative to prison or execution;
and political exiles like Prince Sergei Volkonsky, Maria’s husband, who
had been involved in a failed coup attempt in December 1825.
The terrible transportation situation between Siberia and
European Russia provided the impetus to build the Trans-Siberian
Railway, which was by far the most ambitious railroad project ever
attempted. Russia had first established a base on the Pacific as early as
the 17th century, but its control of the land between the Urals and the
ocean was maintained only tenuously. Indeed, Russia’s ability to
retain its vast Eastern territory began to look tenuous in the mid-19th
century, as the development of efficient steamships in the 1840s and
the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 made it easier for its
European rivals—France, Britain, and Prussia—to access the Pacific.
The completion of the first American transcontinental, also in that
year, followed in 1885 by its Canadian equivalent, raised fears among
the Russian elite that an invasion from the East was imminent.
There had been discussions about a possible trans-Siberian line
as early as in the 1850s, and a succession of plans and projects were
presented to the Russian government over the following decades.
T H E T R A N S - S I B E R I A N R A I LWAY 181
THE TRANS-SIBERIAN TRAKT

Before the Trans-Siberian Railway, the main route
through Siberia was a primitive road known as the
Trakt, seen here as it reached the outskirts of Irkutsk.
Several were madcap ideas dreamed up by foreigners intent on

making a fast buck by exploiting what they perceived to be Russian
naivety, but others were sane and realistic suggestions. Some of the
tales of these projects may have lost accuracy in the telling. A
favorite is the idea that a British gentleman going by the name of
Mr. Dull was the first to suggest a trans-Siberian railroad.
Unfortunately, the truth is more prosaic, or, rather, duller. The
individual was in fact Thomas Duff, an adventurer who went to
China and returned to St. Petersburg in 1857, where he knocked on
the door of the transportation minister, Constantine Chevkin, and
suggested the construction of a “tramway” from Nizhny Novgorod,
265 miles (426km) east of Moscow, to the Urals. The line would be
horse-drawn, and some of the four million wild horses that roamed
western Siberia could be enlisted to provide the traction.
Duff was quietly shown the door, as was a succession of both
Russian and foreign entrepreneurs. Even Nikolay Muravyov-
Amursky, the governor-general of eastern Siberia, who had managed
to establish Russia’s control over previously disputed territory and
who wanted to build a line connecting the Pacific Ocean with the
Siberian interior, had no better luck than Duff. Neither did three
Englishmen (about whom little is known except that they were called
Sleigh, Horn, and Morrison), nor Peter Collins, an adventurer from

New York, who was reportedly the first American to cross the entire
breadth of Siberia. Collins also suggested a line in eastern Siberia,
from Chita, 250 miles (400km) east of Lake Baikal, to the navigable
section of the Amur River, which flows into the Pacific.
Despite rejecting all these suggestions, controversy raged within
the Russian government throughout this period about the need for
a trans-Siberian line. While there were many reasons not to build
the line—such as the expense and the technical difficulties of
creating a railway 5,750 miles (9,250km) long between Moscow and
Vladivostok—the supporters of the project eventually won the
argument on both military and nationalistic grounds. The military
motives for the line were both defensive and offensive. It would not
only allow a much quicker response to any attack on Vladivostok
but, and this was not discussed openly, it would also make it easier
for Russia to establish control over its vast but at the time very
weak southern neighbor, China.
Consequently, in 1886, after some three decades of prevarication,
the czarist government, despite being ruled by the very conservative
Alexander III, took the radical step of deciding to build the line. The
immediate catalyst for the decision seems to have been a fear that
large numbers of Chinese were infiltrating Transbaikalia, the region
around Lake Baikal. In fact, this had little basis in reality, but
somehow it was the crucial development that finally made the
government decide to give the go-ahead to the plan.
Inevitably, finding the money and getting the unwieldy Russian
government behind the plan delayed the start of construction for a
further five years. Finally, however, the czar dispatched his son, the
future Nicholas II, to Vladivostok, where on May 31, 1891, he wielded
a shovel to fill a wheelbarrow with clay soil, which he emptied onto
an embankment of what would become the Ussuri line. Having
done so, however, there was still no agreement on how to complete
the work, or how it could be funded. What the project needed was a
man of vision and drive to see it through to its completion—and
that is just what it received. His name was Sergei Witte, and he was
briefly transportation minister in the Russian government, but was
finance minister by August 1892. Normally such posts were held by
people of limited vision, with an interest only in keeping the purse
strings tight—not so with Sergei Witte. Using his skills as a math
graduate, he both managed the country’s finances with acumen

and ensured that there were plenty of funds for work on the Trans-
Siberian Railway.
Born in the Georgian capital, Tblisi, Witte came from a minor
aristocratic family that had fallen on hard times, and he had to
work as a railway clerk—a very lowly task for a man of his birth and
ambition. His ability was soon recognized, however, and he was
swiftly promoted to manage a railroad company, and then obtained
a senior government post in St. Petersburg. When he became finance
minister, work on the railroad had come to a halt due to a famine
in the Volga region and lack of funds. Witte’s masterstroke was to
create a Committee for the Siberian Railway, headed by the young
czarevitch (heir to the Russian throne) Nicholas, which effectively
guaranteed that the project would enjoy the continuing support of
the monarch. Witte thus became the father of the railroad. He
took a constant interest in its progress, ensured that money was
available, fought off any resistance to the project within government,
and appeased the Chinese, who were highly suspicious that the
line would be used against them.
The difficulties facing the railroad’s builders can hardly be
exaggerated. Although the terrain the line had to cross was not as
difficult as the Alps (see pp.102–107) or the Andes (see pp.198–203),
nor as barren as the American deserts (see pp.32–39), the sheer length,
the extreme temperatures, and the absence of a local labor
force made the railroad’s construction an unprecedented challenge.
To illustrate the scale of the task, the
5,750-mile (9,250-km) route was
2,000 miles (3,200km) longer than the
Canadian transcontinental—and the
US equivalent was not only shorter
overall, it only required 1,750 miles
(2,800km) of new track, since a great deal
SERGEI WITTE
Russian finance minister Sergei
Witte oversaw the industrialization
of much of the Russian Empire.
He was the driving force
behind the building of the
Trans-Siberian Railway.
HARD LABOR
Workers lay tracks for the central portion of the
Trans-Siberian Railway, in the Krasnoyarsk region
of Russia. This section of the line runs between the
Ob and Yenisey rivers.
of railroad had already been laid in the east. By contrast, Russia’s

railroads only reached as far as the Urals, and so the Trans-Siberian
Railway needed an entire 4,500 miles (7,240km) of new track.
Although there were no enormous mountain ranges in the way—
the Urals and the Siberian ranges were relatively easy to get through—
there was no shortage of other difficulties. In the vast steppe, neither
stone for ballast nor wood for ties could be sourced locally, so materials
had to be brought from afar, mostly by river. The rails, too, had to be
transported from factories in the Urals and eastern Russia, as did the
steel for the bridges, which had to cross the massive Siberian rivers.
Then, two-thirds of the way from Moscow, was the biggest obstacle of
all—Lake Baikal, Russia’s biggest lake by volume and the deepest in the
world. The northern shore was too much of a detour and the southern
one was lined with steep cliffs right to the water’s edge, which meant
that a shelf for the railroad had to be blasted out of the stone.
Time was at a premium, with the Czar intent on seeing the project
completed within a decade. As a result, the surveys of the route
were cursory, carried out only on a narrow belt that had been drawn
thousands of miles away by St. Petersburg bureaucrats who had
never been to Siberia and had only inaccurate maps. The ethos
behind the construction was to “muddle through,” since it was
reckoned that building the perfect railroad would simply take too
long. That strategy worked well in terms of ensuring that the job
was done on time, but the result was a very basic railroad that
could only carry a handful of trains per day and was dogged with
technical problems in its early years.
For construction purposes, the railroad was divided into three
main sections, each of around 1,500 miles (2,400km)—the western,
the mid-Siberian, and the far eastern—and it was the latter that had
the most difficulties. Work started first on the western section in 1891,
from Chelyabinsk, the easternmost point of the existing railroad, and
the main difficulty was a lack of local workers. It was estimated that
some 80,000 men would be needed to build the first two sections, so
workers were recruited not only from western Russia but as far afield
as Persia, Turkey, and even Italy. The work was onerous, but well
paid—agricultural workers could earn far more than they did on the
fields, but even then they would often return to their villages at
harvest time to help their relatives. Oddly enough, the main shortage
of material on this section was wood—the local lumber was deemed
unsuitable—and supplies had to be brought in from western Russia.
Construction on the mid-Siberian track began in 1893, and the
labor shortage was so acute that it proved necessary to call on an
obvious local source of workers—convicts who had been exiled to
Siberia. This proved to be an excellent decision, for they were keen
“We must give the country

such industrial perfection
as has been reached by the
United States of America”
SERGEI WITTE
workers, not least because a year of their sentence was remitted for
every eight months they worked on the railroad, and they had
access to tobacco and even occasionally alcohol in the work camps.
Conditions were harsh for the workers, but they were generally
better than those of other 19th-century railroad projects—largely
because workers were in short supply and their employers had to keep
them happy. In the summer months, between May and August, the
hours were long, with men being expected to work from 5am to 7:30pm,
broken only by a lengthy lunch period of an hour and a half. In the
winter, work was confined to the daylight hours, but since the line was
quite far south—roughly on the same latitude as London, Berlin, and
Prague—this still meant a seven- or eight-hour day in mid-winter.
The work was dangerous, too. The death rate was calculated at
around two percent, which was less than on other projects such as
the Panama railroad (see pp.110–19) and the never-completed Cape to
Cairo railroad (see pp.214–221), but it is still shocking by today’s
standards. The most perilous work was constructing the major
bridges, which was particularly perilous in winter, when men had to
perch high above the rivers with no safety equipment and were
dangerously exposed to the elements. Often men became so cold that
they fell unconscious and plunged to their deaths in the icy waters.
The two western sections were completed by 1899, enabling trains
to reach Irkutsk, but the eastern section proved more difficult. Witte
agreed to a fateful change in plan—to run the eastern section
through Manchuria, part of China, rather than building the planned
Amur Railway, which would have kept it on Russian soil (the Amur
line was eventually built between 1907 and 1916). The Manchurian
route was shorter, but it was dangerous politically. Although the
Chinese government acquiesced to the arrangement, it would prove
politically troublesome and eventually lead to the Russo-Japanese
war, which broke out in 1904, soon after the completion of the line.
After the opening of the Chinese Eastern Railway in November
1901, there was still one section left to be built. This was the 110-mile-
(180-km) long Circum-Baikal Railway, along the southern shore of
Lake Baikal, which presented the most severe difficulties. Work did
not start until 1895 and, because of the need to create a shelf in the
cliffs, it did not finish until 1905. Until then, passengers traveling east
of Irkutsk had to take a train ferry across the lake in summer, or a
sleigh over it in winter. In fact, it was not until 1916—when the Amur
Railway, which required the erection of the longest bridge on the line
at Khabarovsk, was completed—that the whole journey from
Moscow to Vladivostok could be undertaken entirely on Russian soil.
Even the most optimistic promoters of the railroad could not have
anticipated the impact that it would have on Siberian—and indeed
Russian—history, and it has not all been good. Not only was the line
the catalyst for the Russo-Japanese war, but it also played a key role in
several other conflicts, most notably two world wars. Also, the czarist
regime that created it paid a heavy price. By concentrating so many of
its limited resources on the project, it neglected other areas of
spending, and this imbalance helped trigger the revolution that led
to the overthrow of the monarchy in 1917. This also led to the
execution of Nicholas II and his family at Ekaterinburg, which,
ironically, is one of the main stations on the western section of the
line. Nevertheless, the project must be counted as a success, despite
its cost, and the sometimes unusual conditions endured by its early
passengers (see p.146). The Trans-Siberian remains the main artery
between Siberia and the rest of Russia. It is a double-track, electrified
line and is heavily used by both freight and passenger trains. It is the
longest railroad in the world, and arguably the most important.
RUSSIAN STEAM LOCOMOTIVE

The USSR stopped producing steam
engines in the 1950s, but a few are
preserved at stations on the Trans-
Siberian Railway. This model
remained in service until
the 1970s.
RUS SI A N T I M E ZON E S K EY
Such is the length of the Trans- MT
Siberian Railway that the journey MOSCOW
from Moscow to Vladivostok +2
crosses seven time zones. +3
Timetables and station clocks
+4
are set to Moscow time (MT),
which results in discrepancies +5
between local and railroad time. +6
These discrepancies increase
from two to seven hours the +7
further one travels east. VLADIVOSTOK
Lake KARA
ST. PETERSBURG Ladoga SEA
VOLOGDA S
AIN
NT
U
NIZHNII- MO
MOSCOW
AL
NOVGOROD
UR
Kirov
RAZAN’
PERM
SYZRAN UFA EKATERINBURG

SAMARA Tiumen
Zlatoust
Mass
Cheliabinsk Tomsk
Kurgan OMSK Ob’
Petropavlovsk
Novosibirsk
KAZAKHSTAN
SIBERIAN RAIL
BRIDGES
Hundreds of bridges were
built along the route of
the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Many of these are of
unsual design, such as this
lenticular bridge, otherwise
known as a “fish-bellied
truss.” The longest bridge
of all, which crosses the
Amur River at Khabarovsk,
is 8,570ft (2,612m) in length.
The Trans-Siberian
Railway
Russia’s railroad network is exceeded in size only by those of the
US and China, so it is perhaps fitting that it features the world’s
longest continuous railway line. At around 5,750 miles (9,250km)
in length, the Trans-Siberian Railway straddles the Russian
interior, linking the country’s heartland in the European west to
its hinterland in the Asian east. A broad-gauge, double-track line
that was fully electrified in 2002, it is a vital artery that has spread
industry and commerce across this vast territory.
RUSSIA
ST
Neryungri
RA
Sovgavan
IT
Komsomolsk-na-Amure
OF
TA
Tynda
R TA
KRASNOYARSK
RY
Belogorsk
Ust-Kut
KHABAROVSK
Kansk Bratskii Ostrog Blagoveshchensk
Nizhne-Udinsk Chita
Lake
Baikal Zabaikalsk
IRKUTSK HARBIN
VERKHNE- VLADIVOSTOK
UDINSK
MUKDEN SEA OF
K EY JAPAN
Trans-Siberian Railway
South Uralian Railway
KOR E A
BAM (Baikal-Amur Mainline) Dalni
Port Arthur
Trans-Manchurian Railway
BEIJING
Other railroad lines
National boundary
Major town CHINA
Town
The Orient Express
D ISAPPOINTINGLY FOR SOME, there never was a murder on

the Orient Express, but there is no doubt that Agatha Christie
chose a fitting setting for her “whodunnit” mystery novel. The Orient
Express was the most exciting and exotic train service in the world,
crossing the whole of Europe and entering territories—particularly in
the east—that were little known to western Europeans. Indeed, the
service was one of the wonders of the age, and like so many railroad
innovations it owed its existence to the tireless efforts of one individual,
in this case Belgian engineer Georges Nagelmackers.
Nagelmackers was the founder of the Compagnie Internationale
des Wagons-Lits, a popular service that offered compartments instead
of the open-plan cars of Pullman’s sleeping cars (see pp.170–77).
However, Nagelmackers’ real genius lay not in the trains he built but
in the routes he established. He wanted a Europe sans frontières, one that
travelers could cross quickly and in style in his well-appointed trains.
To that end, in 1872, he created a service that ran from Ostend on
the North Sea coast of his native Belgium more than 1,000 miles
(1,600km) south to Brindisi on the tip of the Italian heel. The venture
proved successful, and with the East and the Balkans opening up as
the Ottoman Empire declined, he saw that a service linking Europe
and Asia would also be profitable. And so he began work on his Orient
Express—an 1,857-mile (2,989-km) passage from Paris to
Constantinople (now Istanbul), bridging east and
west and crossing six countries en route.
Dealing with the railroads of six diverse
nations was no easy task, and Nagelmackers
had to use all his skills as a negotiator to
solve a whole range of problems. Most
importantly, he had to ensure that each
GEORGES NAGELMACKERS
Belgian industrialist Georges
Nagelmackers was the founder of the
Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-
Lits, the company best known for its
Orient Express service.
THE ORIENT EXPRESS 191
T H E OR I EN T EX PR E S S
Major city
City/town
Main line
GERMANY National
PARIS boundary
Nancy CZECH
REPUBLIC
Strasbourg Stuttgart
FRANCE VIENNA SLOVAKIA
Munchen
HUNGARY
Salzburg Bratislava BUDAPEST
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA
Szeged
ROMANIA
Timisoara
BUCHAREST
SERBIA Orsova
Giurgiu
Russe
Nis
BULGARIA
SOFIA
TURKEY
ISTANBUL
country had locomotives that could haul his trains, and that the
tracks were of standard gauge (see pp.90–91). Other issues included
the width of the route’s tunnels, and arcane matters such as the
security of wine lockers. He was also a great publicist and generated
huge interest in his venture, not least because the route passed
through the Balkans, an area that was still recovering from
numerous wars, having struggled for independence from both the
Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires.
The inaugural train, for press and VIPs, left the Gare de L’Est in Paris
on the evening of October 4, 1883, and was scheduled to take three
and a half days to reach Constantinople. Nagelmackers had created
what The Times correspondent Henri Opper de Blowitz described as
a level “of comfort and facility hitherto unknown.” There was a
smoking room, a ladies’ boudoir, and a library, and each compartment
(or coupé) had a miniature drawing room in the style of Louis XIV,
complete with a Turkish carpet, inlaid tables, and plush red armchairs.
In the evenings, the compartment walls could be folded down to
reveal beautifully upholstered beds. The cabinet de toilette had a mosaic
ALPINE ADVENTURE
The Orient Express passes through the Austrian Alps shortly
before World War I. Here it is hauled by an Austrian locomotive—
one of six different engines that would take it to Constantinople.
floor, and a special car at the rear of the train had cubicles for showers
that were supplied with hot and cold water—certainly a railroad
first. According to one account (and numerous tales were published)
the piéce de résistance was the dining room:
[It] had a ceiling with embossed leather from Cordoue [Cordoba], walls
lined with tapestries from the Atelier des Gobelins, founded by the Sun
King, and drapes of finest Gènes [Genoa] velvet.
The tables were covered with white damask cloths and intricately
folded napkins, and ice buckets filled with champagne bottles were at
hand—and if the five-course meal were not enough, iceboxes full of
exotic foods and cold drinks were available at the end of each car.
Nagelmackers was a stickler for detail, and set out a series of rules
to maintain high standards. Attendants had to be smart at all times
and on special occasions had to dress like footmen from the time of
Louis XIV, complete with blue silk breeches and buckled shoes. Even
the engine crew had to dress up on occasion, often in white coats
that were highly impractical in the engineer's cab.
That first journey was one long party. At Strasbourg, Vienna,
and Budapest the train was met by brass bands and local dignitaries,
while at Tsigany, in Hungary, a gypsy orchestra came aboard and
serenaded the passengers all the way to the border with Romania.
The only drawback was that the track was incomplete. The bridge
over the Danube river was unfinished, so the crossing from
Romania to Bulgaria had to be made by ferry, and even then the
line only reached as far as the port of Varna, where passengers had
to take a ship to Constantinople. This last section of the journey
was, according to Blowitz, through a land full of “brigands” who
had recently attacked one station and “garrotted the stationmaster
and his subordinates in order to get hold of the money they expected
in his till,” and only fled when they were disturbed by workmen.
Consequently, Blowitz and his companions armed themselves with
revolvers, although they never had occasion to use them. They
arrived at Constantinople precisely 82 hours after their departure
from Paris and were met by the Sultan, with whom Blowitz
conducted a newspaper interview, the ruler’s first.
It was another six years before it was possible to take the train all the
way to Constantinople. The trip took just under three days, leaving
Paris on a Wednesday at 7:30pm and arriving at 5:35pm on the
Saturday in Constantinople. The service became popular, attracting
a wide range of travelers as it was quicker and more convenient than
traveling by ship. Subsequently, a variety of other routes were opened,
running trains that bore some variant of the name “Orient Express.”
Various connecting trains were also introduced, including one from
London via a train ferry. Inevitably, when war broke out in 1914, the
Orient Express was suspended, but as soon as the war was over in 1918
a second line was opened—the Simplon Orient Express, on which
Agatha Christie’s tale is set. Using the Simplon Tunnel between
Switzerland and Italy, this second
line was a more southerly route
via Milan, Venice, and Trieste,
and soon became the more
popular route from Paris to
Constantinople. A third line was
BOUND FOR PARIS

On April 18, 1887, a traveler bought
this ticket for Fr52.95. It afforded
passage from Budapest to Paris
aboard the Orient Express.
LUXURY DINING
The dining car of the Orient Express, set
for dinner. The very first menu included
oysters, turbot with green sauce, chaud-
froid of game animals, chicken à la
chasseur, and a buffet of desserts.
added in the 1930s (the heyday of the Orient services)—the Arlberg

Orient Express, which ran via Zurich and Innsbruck to Budapest,
with sleeper cars continuing on to Bucharest and Athens. The
outbreak of World War II in 1939 again interrupted the service,
although the German Mitropa company ran trains through the
Balkans until Yugoslav partisans destroyed the line.
While there were no recorded murders on the Orient Express, there

was at least one mysterious death—when a US agent fell from a
train at the height of the Cold War in the 1950s—and there was no
shortage of mischief. Sleeping car attendants were regularly called
on to hire prostitutes, not just for gentlemen, but for princes and
even bishops who found that a train offered more privacy than a
brothel. Indeed, many men took the train simply for these services
alone. There was plenty of spying, too, given that the trains linked
east and west. Between the wars, “King’s Messengers”—effectively
couriers for the British Foreign Office—traveled in compartments
where they guarded their diplomatic bags with their lives—and
later claimed that they were
immune to the wiles of the
beautiful young spies who were
sent to entrap them, although
we only have their word for that.
For all its luxuries, however,
the service did not remain
exclusive for long. On the
contrary, although there was
only one class of car in the
original service, which cost 300
Francs (the equivalent of two
weeks’ average wages at the
time), second and third class cars
were opened for poorer people
EASTERN PROMISE
A French poster displays the
timetable of the Orient Express
over the winter of 1888. Its seven
main stops are advertised, plus a
connecting service to London.
“Peasants in half a dozen countries

would pause in their work in the
fields and gape at the glittering
cars and the supercilious faces
behind the windows”
E.H. COOKRIDGE, THE ORIENT EXPRESS
who used it for shorter, mostly domestic journeys. In these packed

cars, as one writer put it, “the pulse of Old Europe beat, with its almost
medieval characters: the tramp, the peddler, the gypsy-musician…”
Indeed, although the service continued to operate even after the Iron
Curtain divided Europe, the communist countries increasingly
replaced the luxurious Wagon-Lits cars with more spartan cars run
by their own railroad networks.
By 1962, the Orient Express and the Arlberg Orient Express had
stopped running, leaving only the Simplon Orient Express, which
was replaced by a slower service, the Direct Orient Express, which ran
daily trains from Paris to Belgrade and twice-weekly services from Paris
to Istanbul and Athens. The service through to Istanbul finally came to
an end in 1977, killed off by the ubiquitous spread of the automobile. A
service called the Orient Express stuttered on between Paris and Vienna,
and between Budapest and Bucharest, but that closed with the opening
of the high-speed line between Paris and Strasbourg in 2009 (a service
called the Venice-Simplon Orient Express still operates between
London and Venice, but it is a separate entity). By the time of its
swansong in 2009, the original Orient Express was an anachronism—a
relic that had perhaps done well to last as long as it did.
The Most Spectacular

Railroads in the World
H ENRY MEIGGS WAS A SCOUNDREL who made good

building railroads. When he arrived in Chile in 1855, he was a
44-year-old outcast who had fled San Francisco amid accusations of
fraud, but by the time he died 22 years later, this handsome, larger-
than-life character had been honored with the unofficial title of
“Don Enrique.” By then, he had conquered some of the world’s
most difficult railroad terrain—the seemingly impossible slopes of
the Andes—for which he also earned the nickname “Yankee
Pizarro,” after the Spanish conqueror of the Incas.
In his youth, Meiggs demonstrated a remarkable capacity for
hatching imaginative schemes, but he was never entirely honest—if a
venture failed, he was not above lying and manipulating others to avoid
being exposed. He had an early success in the lumber business, setting
up his own company in New York City and relocating to San Francisco
during the Gold Rush. After that he went into property and developed
land near the Golden Gate, but he soon fell into debt and only avoided
bankruptcy by raising cash with illicitly obtained warrants. When his
fraud was discovered, he fled to Chile, where his devious reputation
preceded him. The only work he could find was overseeing a gang of
laborers building the railroads, but he proved to be so efficient that he
was soon given charge of entire railroad projects. Two of his predecessors,
a New Englander named William Wheelwright and the
great Richard Trevithick (see pp.20–21), had dreamed
of building lines inland from the west coast of South
America, but it was Meiggs who finally built them.
This achievement had enormous consequences
for the region, for it opened up vast deposits of
copper, silver, and minerals for exploitation, and
made fortunes for Chile and Peru.
HENRY MEIGGS
Charismatic American entrepreneur
Henry Meiggs pioneered the railroad
lines of Chile and Peru. Doing so required
scaling the heights of the Andes.
T H E MOS T SP EC TAC U L A R R A I L ROA DS I N T H E WOR L D 199
To help him with construction, Meiggs engaged engineers who shared

his own daring outlook on the fearsome terrain. His first big success
came with the laying of a 90-mile (145-km) line from the Pacific coast to
San Fernando, which involved bridging the Maipo River, previously a
major obstacle separating north and south Chile. On completing the
line faster than his contract required, Meiggs successfully bid for
the most important route in the country—from Valparaiso, on the west
coast, to Santiago (the capital), a mere 55 miles (89km) inland as the crow
flies, but in practice 115 miles (185km) due to the mountainous terrain.
Wheelwright had begun the route, but after spending a million pesos (or
tens of thousands of dollars) only 4 miles (6.5km) had been completed by
the time Meiggs took over. To finish the route, the government borrowed
money from Barings Bank of London, and Meiggs did a speedy deal with
the Minister of the Interior, promising to complete the route in three
years for six million pesos—so long as he received an additional half
million pesos if he finished early, plus an extra 10,000 pesos for every
month gained. Backed by a workforce of 10,000 men, Meiggs completed
the line in just two years and three days, a triumph that proved his
astonishing capabilities both as a contractor and a negotiator.
Having thus “conquered” Chile, Meiggs moved on to even
bigger projects in Peru, a country that was just striking it rich
thanks to its enormous deposits of guano, or bird droppings, which
made an excellent fertilizer. Understandably, Peruvians wished to
use their new-found wealth to build a railroad system that would
unify the country, just as the Belgians had done forty years
earlier (see pp.43–44), and as the Canadians (see pp.125–27) and the
Italians (see pp.46–47) were doing at the time. For that reason Meiggs
was welcomed with open arms—or open palms, in the case of the
ruling class, who demanded huge amounts of money in bribes.
Meiggs’s big opportunity came as the result of an episode that
was typical of Peru’s dramatic political history. In 1868, Colonel José
Balta, the type of buccaneering officer often found in South America
at the time, was elected president. Immediately after his election,
Peru suffered a devastating earthquake, and Meiggs cannily donated
$50,000 to the government, or rather to Balta personally, ostensibly
for crisis relief. Balta had already upset the local oligarchy by giving
a French company a monopoly on the sale of guano, and now he
used money raised by the deal to pay another foreigner—Meiggs—
to build Peru’s railroads. And so, in the three years following Balta’s
HEIGHT ABOVE SEA election, Meiggs signed six contracts

LEVEL OF GALERA to build over 1,000 miles (1,600km) of
STATION IN PERU railroads, on terms that were highly
favorable to him. The result was that,
having had a mere 61 miles (98km) of
15,681FT track in 1861, Peru had 947 miles

(1,524km) by 1874, and nearly 2,000
miles (13,200km) by 1879, two years
(4,777M) after Meiggs’ death.
Meiggs built two lines in Peru, and
both are wonders of the railroad
THE WORLD'S world. The first runs from the
HIGHEST STATION southern port of Mollendo to
Arequipa, Peru’s second-biggest city,
and then up to Lake Titicaca and the mining area of Juliaca.
Meiggs estimated that it would cost him 10 million soles to build it
(around $300 million today), and then told the government that
it would cost 15 million, and proceded to build it for 12 million
(and even completed it early). The second line, the Central
Peruvian, rises from Callao, the port of Lima, up through the
steepest and highest sections of the Andes, following precipitous
llama paths to the copper mines of Huancayo and the fabled
silver mines of Cerro de Pasco.
Unfortunately, the lines were built at a time of great financial
turmoil. As the country’s guano ran out, so the supply of money
from the government dried up, and Meiggs was forced to use his
own bills of exchange—the so-called “Billetes de Meiggs.” Sadly,
too, Meiggs died during construction, but by then he had shown
how it was done, and had conquered the steepest slopes. He
followed the British idea of zig-zagging railroads uphill (see
pp.204–205), but did so on an unprecedented scale. In India, the
British lines reached 2,500ft (760m)—Meiggs’s trains scaled
mountains over 14,000ft (4,250m) high, and zig-zagged 25 times in
a matter of 100 miles (160km).
Being a foreigner, Meiggs was an easy scapegoat for Peru’s economic

woes, one journalist even writing that the “the ruin of Peru is the
monument [to] Henry Meiggs.” However, he was mostly considered a
hero, and one of the country’s highest peaks was soon named after
BRIDGING THE ABYSS
To access the remoter parts of Peru, Henry
Meiggs constructed numerous bridges,
such as this seemingly precarious viaduct
in the mining region of Juliaca.
BILLETES DE MEIGGS
In the 1870s, Henry Meiggs effectively created his
own currency to finance his railroad projects in
Peru. Around a million soles’ worth of banknotes
known as Billetes de Meiggs were put in circulation.
him. His success was due not only to his ability to find the best route
for a railroad, but also to his formidable organizational skills and his
ability to bring out the best in his workers. One Peruvian journalist
described his “railroad army” battling the elements:
The ‘army’ (distributed along the line in eleven camps), consisting of

Don Enrique’s engineers and labourers, was attacking the Andes. The
scouts went ahead to determine the best and least costly route; the
advance guard followed in their tracks, staking out the exact route to be
followed; next came the main body, levelling the barriers, making fills
and cuts and piercing tunnels; lastly, there was the rear guard, putting
down ties and laying rails.
Meiggs was famously generous to his workforce, particularly the

rotos—the much-feared, much-despised, Chilean working class.
According to James Fawcett, in Railways of the Andes, a typical roto was
notorious: “for his hardihood, his skill in the handling of the sharp,
curved, disembowelling knife that all his tribe carried, his hatred of
any sort of discipline, his love of cane sugar as a beverage and his
addiction to gambling.” Meiggs succeeded by treating his workers as
men rather than slaves, and he was even more successful with the
5,000 Chinese workers he hired and who were normally treated
worse than the rotos. (see pp.88–89). According to one observer,
T H E MOS T SP EC TAC U L A R R A I L ROA DS I N T H E WOR L D 203
quoted by Fawcett: “some of them were fat, the only fat Chinese in
the country! Meiggs fed them well with rice and beef in plenty and
a good breakfast of bread and tea before starting the day’s work.”
Toward the end of his life, Meiggs wanted to return to the US,
claiming that he had repaid his San Francisco debts, but the
governor of San Francisco vetoed a bill that was passed to exonerate
him from his offences. In 1977, a century after Meiggs’s death, the
California Supreme Court quashed the indictment against him,
declaring that he “had gone to a higher court,” but his death was
not the end of his family’s influence. His nephew, Minor C. Keith,
went on to complete a railroad his uncle had started in Costa Rica.
Its major source of income was carrying bananas, and Keith went
on to found United Fruit, the colossus that dominated the sale of
bananas for a century.
Going Uphill
The first railroad lines were laid along the flattest routes possible,
but the requirements of industry—particularly mining—soon
demanded that trains could travel uphill. The earliest solution was
the “incline”—a pair of parallel tracks that enabled a descending
train to haul an ascending train uphill by means of a chain that
connected the two via a pulley. This worked particularly well on
the short sections of track that were used to draw raw materials
up from pits and quarries, and variants were powered by horses or
stationary steam engines. The basic premise lies behind modern-
day funicular railroads, and other engineering solutions, such as
spiral loops and switchbacks, have also been developed.
SWITCHBACKS
The railroad linking Ecuador’s
Spiral loop coast with its capital, Quito—at
Building a railroad track on a spiral allows 9,350 ft (2,850m)—crosses the
a train to gain elevation in a much shorter Nariz del Diablo escarpment
length of track than would be possible with via a series of switchbacks.
a conventional curve. Spiral loops also avoid By this method, trains gain
height in a short length
the inconveniences of reverse travel and of track by entering a
interrupted movement that are necessary dead-end siding, and
when climbing switchbacks, the other then reversing to
railroad engineering method by which climb the next
traction trains climb hills (see right). switchback.
Popular in challenging terrain, such as
mountainous regions in which level ground
is limited, spirals are set at a constant grade
and degree of curvature, and allow the
track to pass over itself as the line ascends.
THE BRUSIO SPIRAL VIADUCT IN SWITZERLAND WAS BUILT

IN 1908. IT DESCENDS 60FT (20M) AT A GRADE OF 7 PERCENT.
GOING UPHILL 205
Funicular railroads HOW IT WORKS

Two- and three-rail Descending
The first funicular railroad—a form of funiculars contain car
a siding at the halfway
cable car operating on similar principles to point. Each car has
a railroad incline—opened in 1862 in Lyon, “blind” (flangeless) Two-rail
France, and featured a four-rail track layout inner wheels and funicular
on which two cars traveled on separate double-flanged outer
parallel tracks. The development of wheels to prevent
sidings allowed later designs to economize them from
switching rails.
on the space and materials used. First
came a three-rail layout, in which cars
shared a central rail—then came a Weight of upper
two-rail layout in which the cars shared car hauls lower
both rails on either side of the siding. car up the slope
Siding
Pulley cable
Flangeless wheel
rides on top of the Outer wheel
inside rail with flanges
on either side
of outside rail
THE KIEV FUNICULAR, UKRAINE, OPENED IN 1905. IT CLIMBS

781FT (238M) OF TRACK AT A GRADE OF 36 PERCENT.
Henry Flagler and the

Overseas Railroad
H E WAS UNIQUE in the history of the United States. He could

have been as rich and as famous as John D. Rockefeller. Instead,
Henry Flagler chose to spend the last 30 years of his life building a
railroad line in Florida and establishing Florida’s tourist industry.
His final triumph, completed only a year before he died in 1913, was
the construction of the world’s most ambitious “overseas
railroad”—a line stretching all the way from the mainland across
the Florida Keys to the southernmost tip of the US, Key West.
For decades before his great Florida adventure, Flagler had been
a key partner in the creation of Rockefeller’s gigantic Standard Oil
monopoly. According to Flagler’s biographer, David Chandler,
Rockefeller readily admitted that Flagler was an inspiration. Indeed,
Flagler had contributed more than Rockefeller to the organization
of the Standard, and was wholly responsible for the clever legal
structure that protected it against antitrust lawsuits. However,
Flagler craved an outlet for his colossal creative energies, and that
was just what he found in Florida, which he explored in 1883 while
on honeyoon with his second wife, Ida.
At the time, Florida was still a young state and was keen to
sell its land rights, and Flagler saw that even underdeveloped
St. Augustine, the oldest European settlement in the US, was
attracting plenty of wealthy tourists. Sensing a golden opportunity,
he gave up his daily involvement in the Standard, and set about
building a chain of hotels along the east coast—the first of which,
the 540-room Ponce de León, opened in St. Augustine in 1888.
Designed by the architects of the Metropolitan Opera and New
York Public Library, the Ponce de León was the height of luxury and
immediately attracted visitors. However, the local railroads were a
deterrent, for they ran on a variety of gauges (see pp.90–91) and so
demanded frequent changes of train. What was needed was a
reliable railroad that would link the town directly to New York, so
Flagler bought up the existing lines and converted them to standard
gauge. As he noted: “the average passenger will take a through car
ninety five times in a hundred in preference to making a change”.
H E N RY F L AGL ER A N D T H E OV ER S E A S R A I L ROA D 207
F LOR I DA'S EAST COAST R A I LROA D

Jacksonville Jacksonville Beach
Ponce de León
St. Augustine
ATLANTIC
Ormond Beach OCEAN
Daytona Beach
New Smyrna
Beach
FLORIDA Cocoa-Rockledge
Melbourne
GULF OF Tampa
MEXICO
Vero Beach
Fort Pierce
PEN
I NS
Royal
ULA
Poinciana Palm Beach

R&
Delray Beach
O CC
Boca Raton
I DE
Fort
N TA
Royal Lauderdale
Palm
L ST
Major city Miami Beach

Coral Gables MIAMI
EA M
City/town
SH I
Flagler hotel
Homestead
P CO
Upgraded line
M PA
New line
T
Shipping line
NY
UC
AD
VI
EY
GK
L ON
Key West
TO CUBA
Another problem was that the lines only ran to Daytona, a beach
about a third of the way down the coast—beyond that, Flagler
would have to lay his own tracks.
Flager’s next port of call was Palm Beach, a natural harbor that he
explored in 1893. As always, he inspected the site incognito, to avoid
attracting attention, and then returned openly to buy the land he
wanted. Within months he opened the 1,100-room Royal Poinciana
hotel, which Chandler called “the largest resort hotel in the world…
equipped and staffed in the most luxurious manner imaginable,” and
extended the railroad south to reach it. The guests did full justice to
PONCE DE
LEÓN HOTEL
Completed in 1888,
the Ponce de León
hotel was a landmark
in Henry Flagler’s
development of
Florida’s east coast.
Today it lies at the
heart of Flagler College,
founded in 1968.
the luxury of the accommodation, with a hundred private railroad

cars arriving each winter for the George Washington Birthday Ball—
an event at which the most powerful men in America, including
Flagler himself, dressed in the most elaborate drag costumes,
complete with fishnet stockings, powdered wigs, and strings of
diamonds. Another great draw was an annex called the Breakers,
which proved so popular that Flagler turned it into a casino.
To foster local industry, Flagler also established a “Model Land
Company,” which, in Chandler’s words, “did more perhaps to
actually building up the Florida East Coast than any of his other
undertakings.” He encouraged people to plant vegetables, citrus
fruit, and pineapples, and when an unprecedented snowstorm
wiped out the fledgling industry in the winter of 1884 he secretly
spent a fortune helping the affected farmers. He even arranged a
link-up with weather forecasters, and if a serious drop in temperature
was predicted, his engine drivers sounded six long blasts on their
whistles as they thundered through the orange groves, calling on
farmers to hurry out with their “smudge pots”—oil-burning
heaters that prevented frost from forming on the fruit trees.
Another consequence of these freezes was Flagler’s decision to extend
his railroad south, for only 60 miles (100km) away the climate was
warmer and better suited to farming. Extending the railroad also
entitled him to land grants, and on the basis of these he accumulated
over two million acres of territory, including Biscayne Bay, a beautiful
spot protected from the Atlantic by a barrier island and watered by the
little Miami River. At the time, the area was “mostly swamp, and was
filled with mosquitoes, snakes, mangrove thickets and Spanish Bayonet”
(a nasty type of cactus), but Flagler tamed it and brought water and
electricity to the town he established there. The locals wanted to call the
town “Flagler,” but Flagler declined the honor, preferring to name it
after the river. Thus Miami was born. The following year he set about
building another luxury hotel, the Royal Palm, which was as popular as
the Royal Poinciana. The railroad arrived at Miami in 1896, completing
a 500-mile (800-km) line that ran south from the neighboring state of
Georgia through Jacksonville and the resorts Flagler had built. Anyone
glancing at a map could see that Miami was the end of the line, but
Flagler kept on going, out to sea, away from the mainland and over the
Florida Keys—an archipelago that sweeps southwest from Miami to Key
West, far out in the Gulf of Mexico. “There is an impelling force within
me,” he told a friend, “and I must carry out my plans”—and the result
was his 128-mile (206-km) “overseas railway.”
In one respect Flagler was lucky. By the time his plans were ready,
President Theodore Roosevelt had authorized the construction of the
Panama Canal, making Key West a potentially vital transportation hub.
As for getting the work done, Flagler simply found the right man for the
job and left him to it, ignoring the question of cost, even though there
were no more grants to be had. His chosen engineer was Joseph Carroll
Meredith, who had already built the massive docks at Tampico on the
Gulf of Mexico. However, before he got started on the offshore part of
the route, Meredith had to lay 91 miles (146km) of railroad through the
Everglades, an ordeal in which every kind of danger and annoyance was
encountered, from apparently bottomless swamps and uncharted lakes
to snakes, alligators, mosquitoes, and obstacles that only the biggest
“But that any man could have the

genius to see of what this wilderness
was capable and then have the
nerve to build a railroad here…”
GEORGE W. PERKINS OF J.P. MORGAN, ON FLAGLER'S ACHIEVEMENTS
dredgers in the country could move. Then he faced the 37 miles (60km)
of the “overseas” railroad itself, a route demanding 17 miles (27km) of
bridges and 20 miles (32km) of embankments—a feat of engineering
that has never been equaled. The Long Key viaduct alone measured 2½
miles (4km), and was second only to the 7-mile (11-km) Knights Key
viaduct, which rested on 366 concrete columns and had a swing bridge
to allow ships to pass through it. Without dry land for accommodation,
the 4,000 workers were housed on enormous barges, which contained
all the facilities needed for survival, including vast quantities of fresh
water. However, there was still a high casualty rate, both from accidents
and disease, and a hospital was built in Miami to treat the afflicted. The
elements also caused havoc, not least in 1906, when a hurricane sank an
accommodation barge, causing at least at least 70 deaths, and delaying
construction for a year.
The whole Florida East Coast Railway project was completed at a
cost of $20 million ($500 million in today’s money) and in less than
seven years. This was largely thanks to the loyalty of Flagler’s men,
one of whom told a reporter “there isn’t one of us who wouldn’t give
a year of his life to have Mr. Flagler see the work completed.” And see
it he did, opening the line to the public on January 22, 1912, tearfully
exclaiming: “my dream is fulfilled, now I can die happy.” He had
never expected to see the project completed, predicting 20 years
earlier that it would take 30 years to finish, and accurately forecasting:
“I have only 20 more years to live.” The line’s completion was
celebrated by the introduction of the Havana Express, a regular
through service that arrived at Key West only 52 hours after leaving
New York, giving passengers the luxury of strolling across the quay to
take a ship to Cuba, a mere 90 miles (45km) away. Flagler, his life’s
work accomplished, died a happy man the following year.
Sadly, however, the line never prospered. It failed to attract many
passengers, and proved to be unreliable since it was affected by bad
weather. Consequently, the railroad went bankrupt in 1932, and the
offshore track was destroyed on Labor Day 1935, during the worst storm
of the century. Nevertheless, Meredith had built his railroad well.
Highway 1, which replaced it, was constructed on the roadbed that
Flagler had financed. Indeed, Florida, the Sunshine State, has much to
thank him for. When he started work it was one of the poorest states in
the Union—today it has one of the strongest economies in the world.
OVERSEAS EXPRESS
An express train thunders over the Long Key
Viaduct—a 2½-mile (4-km) stretch of arches that
links two islands of the Florida Keys. Today, the
structure supports the Overseas Highway, or
Highway 1, which follows Flagler’s railroad route.
Hauling Freight
The workhorses of the railroads, freight locomotives
require high power output rather than speed. The use
of containers to convey goods has increased demand for
freight trains, and rail is still the preferred method for
moving bulk cargo, such as coal, grains, and liquids.
UNION PACIFIC
NO.25408 CABOOSE (1959)
Common on US and Canadian
railroads, cabooses were the
last car on a freight train, and
housed some of the crew
members. Thought to be named
after the Dutch kabuis (“ship’s
galley”), their use declined as
automatic signaling reduced
the need for large crews. The
pictured model has a cupola for
watching the train’s cargo.
B&O NO.3684 (1966) Front-facing cab

No.3684 is a General Motors
GP40-class diesel-electric, a
versatile locomotive that
could be used for “manifest”
freight—hauling a range of
different units in a single
train—as well as heavy
loads. It was the first engine
capable of a power output
of 3,000bhp (2,240kw) to be
used by the Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad.
Mounted on a 55-ft
(16.8-m) frame
B&O NO.7402 (1964)

One of 24 Baltimore and Ohio
SD35-class diesel-electric
locomotives, No.7402 was
powered by a 16-cylinder
engine that yielded a power
output of 2,500bhp (1,900kw).
Its two three-axle trucks are
typical of low-speed, high-
weight freight trains.
H AU L I NG F R E IGH T 213
NORFOLK AND WESTERN NO.522 (1962)

No.522 was the first of a series of the GP30
class from General Motors to be put into
service by the Norfolk and Western Railway.
It achieved a power output of 2,250bhp
(1,680kw) through its diesel-electric engine.
SANTA FE SOUTHERN NO.92 (1953) NORFOLK AND WESTERN NO.1776 (1970)

A diesel-electric “switcher” used to switch With a power output of 3,600bhp (2,680kw),
trains at rail yards, Santa Fe Southern’s No.92 No.1776 was one of 115 SD45 diesel-electrics
is a GP7-class built by General Motors. It was produced by General Motors for the Norfolk and
one of the first locomotives to use the “hood Western Railway. It was painted in a stars-and-
unit” design, in which a narrow body is stripes livery to mark the 1976 bicentenary of
surrounded by external walkways. the US Declaration of Independence.
Three 48-in
(121-cm)
radiator
fans
Locomotive weighs Geared to travel at External

139 tons (141 tonnes) 65mph (104kph) walkways
SBB CARGO TRAXX F140 AC (2003)

Built by Bombardier, the TRAXX class
is a modular family of trains that can be
adapted for a range of functions, and is the
most economically successful train ever
produced. The pictured model is of an
electric freight train operated by
SBB Cargo of Switzerland.
Cape to Cairo:
the Railroad that Never Was
I T WAS THE MOST ABSURD, the most ambitious, and the most
improbable of all railroad dreams, and it failed—but only just. No
continuous line from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope—which
would have linked Britain’s African colonies (colored pink on global
political maps of the era)—was ever built. Nevertheless, construction
started on a through-rail route in the 1880s, and one did eventually
emerge 40 years later, although hundreds of miles of transfers via
lakes and rivers were necessary to complete the journey. However,
even the project’s most optimistic protagonists had accepted that
maritime interruptions would be necessary. Indeed Cecil Rhodes,
the godfather of the idea, stated that the project was never for a
railroad that depended on traffic all the way through, but one that
would “pick up trade all the way along the route,” and, crucially, would
run entirely through British Imperial territory.
The idea represented a microcosm of the various impulses behind
the British Empire in the late-Victorian era. It combined private
megalomania, commercial and financial greed, and military necessity,
although it had relatively little support—especially not of the financial
kind—from London. Whether the project is viewed
as a failure or as a partial success, the motley
band of imperialists, contractors, and
engineers who worked on it built
thousands of miles of railroad that are
still vital for the African continent today.
The route incorporated separate lines to
both the Atlantic and Indian oceans and,
as a by-product, created a number of new
towns and cities. Lusaka, now the capital
of Zambia, was described in railroad
CECIL RHODES
British imperialist Cecil Rhodes was the man
behind the dream of a railroad from the Cape
all the way across the “red line” of British
colonies in Africa to Cairo.
C A P E T O C A I RO : T H E R A I L ROA D T H AT N E V E R WA S 215
historian George Tabor’s The Cape to Cairo

Railway as no more than a “lion-infested
siding,” and Gaberone, the future capital of
Botswana, was a “remote watering hole on
the edge of the Kalahari desert.”
The idea of an all-British railroad
through Africa was first suggested in 1876 GEORGE PAULING
by the explorer H.M. Stanley (of “Dr. Larger-than-life engineer George
Livingstone, I presume” fame), in a letter Pauling worked with astonishing
stamina and speed to build Rhodes’
to the Daily Telegraph newspaper. As railroads across southern Africa.
Stanley later put it, “the railroad is the
answer to Africa’s pressing problems. It is the only answer to the
wagon trails, decimated by rinderpest and the tsetse fly; and the one
way to defeat slavery by opening up the continent to commerce and
communication.” Stanley’s idea became a reality through the
unbridled ambition of Cecil Rhodes, an imperial and political
megalomaniac who made his fortune from the lucrative diamond
trade of southern Africa. Rhodes was supported throughout the
project by Charles (later Sir Charles) Metcalfe, an unusual blend of
aristocrat and consulting engineer, who had been a friend since the
pair were students at Oxford University.
To carry out his ambitions, Rhodes required someone with the
engineering skills to build a railroad over thousands of miles of virtually
impassable country. He was lucky to find the right man in British
railroad engineer George Pauling, head of family-owned engineering
contractor Pauling & Co, which already had a decade of experience
building railroads overseas when it was established under that name in
1894. The firm also included George’s brother Harry, four cousins—
Harold, Henry, Willie, and Percy—and his brother-in-law Alfred Lawley.
In every respect, George was a larger-than-life character. He was a
very big man who professed that he was “never able to reduce my
weight below 16 stone [220lbs].” This was perhaps not surprising given
his enormous appetite—on one occasion he consumed 300 bottles of
German beer with two friends while stuck for 48 hours on a railroad
line; on another he ate a thousand oysters (“small but of delicate flavor”)
in one sitting. As his banker Emile d’Erlanger put it (Pauling relied on
the d’Erlangers’ financial backing, as Rhodes depended on the
Rothschilds’), he was “endowed with a physique that made light of any
feat of strength and enabled him to defy fatigue or illness.”
His stamina was combined with a readiness to build rough-and-ready

lines, leaving bridges to wait until later. He knew that his work would
prove to be durable, and it was this confidence that ensured his promises
of apparently impossible speeds of construction would be kept. His
financial success came from his capacity to identify almost at a glance
the shortest and cheapest route for a line. Although he based his
estimate on an initial outside survey and charged a fixed fee per mile,
he profited greatly from his ability to find shortcuts.
The first railroads had opened in the Cape Colony, at Africa’s
southern tip, in 1863. To save money, they were built to a narrow
gauge of 3ft 6in (1,076mm), which became known as “Cape Gauge.”
Development of the lines was limited by financial constraints, and
the narrow gauge resulted in speeds that never averaged more than
35mph (56kph). It was the 1872 diamond rush at Kimberley, 600 miles
(965km) to the north, that sparked more ambitious railroad-building
CONSTRUCTION OF THE CAPE TO CAIRO

Work started on southern Africa’s first railroad at Cape Town
in 1859. By the time the tracks reached the Congo River in 1918,
the dream of a trans-African railroad had been abandoned.
plans, adding a solid financial DISTANCE FROM CAPE TO

rationale to the young Rhodes’ CAIRO AS THE CROW FLIES
imperial ambitions.
The rails reached Kimberley
by 1885 while Rhodes, still only in
his thirties, was busy building up
a diamond monopoly through his
4,200 MILES
company, De Beers. This first
stage of the line was no easy feat, (6,750 KM)
with a climb of more than 3,500ft
(1,000m) to the dry, dusty uplands of the Karoo. Pauling ensured that
the pace of construction was far faster than the eight years it had
taken to lay the first 400 miles (650km) from Cape Town to Worcester.
Progress was easier on the plateau of the Karoo, and Pauling’s men
could advance as much as half a mile (1km) a day. Pauling pushed
ahead despite opposition from the region’s Afrikaner population,
who hated the railroad as a symbol of British imperialism and as “an
invention of the devil.” But Pauling had an unexpected trump card to
play. His family had welcomed in a couple of stranded Afrikaners
who had been turned away by English hoteliers, thus ensuring
the permanent gratitude and support of President Kruger of the
neighboring South African Republic.
By 1890, Rhodes, a politician as well as an entrepreneur, had become
Prime Minister of Cape Colony. A year earlier he had founded the British
South Africa Company, which was to control the two countries later
named after him—Northern and Southern Rhodesia. He planned to
lay rails north to the Zambezi River and to the Nile Valley. The first step
was Mafeking, 100 miles (160km) to the north of the existing end of the
rails at Vryburg; the line was opened to traffic in October 1894. The next
step was the 530 miles (850km) to Bulawayo. Pauling made good his
promise to build the railroad at an amazing speed—more than a mile a
day—and the line arrived at Bulawayo in 1897 to a banner reading “Our
two roads to progress: Railroads and Cecil Rhodes.”
The next step was to connect the Cape line from Bulawayo to
Salisbury (now Harare in Zimbabwe), the capital of Southern Rhodesia.
Two links were required: one connecting Salisbury to Beira on the coast
of Portuguese-controlled Mozambique, and another running directly
from Salisbury to Bulawayo. Construction was delayed by tension
between the British and Portuguese authorities, which culminated in a
diplomatic incident involving British forces and a Portuguese gunboat.

The discord was resolved by a treaty between the two sides, and
construction was permitted to proceed in 1892. Even by 19th-century
standards it was a very risky project, crossing both swamp and forest
terrain. In the first two years of construction more than half the white
men died of fever, as did virtually all of the 500 Indian immigrant
workers, who had less immunity to the local diseases. However, this did
not deter Pauling & Co’s project manager, Alfred Lawley, himself an
excellent engineer, from achieving what Tabor describes as an “amazingly
successful 2-feet [60cm] gauge miniature line, almost ‘thrown together’…
on the rough and ready earthworks,” even though “at times it ran like a
fairground switchback.” The line would be improved a year later in 1899,
when it was widened to the “Cape Gauge.” The first train reached the
Rhodesian frontier in February 1898 carrying the slogan “Now we shan’t
be long to Cairo.” By 1902, the Bulawayo stretch of line was connected to
Beira on the Indian Ocean, creating a continuous link of more than
2,000 miles (3,200km) to Cape Town on the Atlantic.
Meanwhile, there was considerable progress on the northern section
of the railroad, which stretched south from the Mediterranean coast of
Egypt. There had been railroad lines in Egypt since the mid-1850s, but
financial and political problems ensured that they did not stretch into
Sudan, the country’s southern neighbor. In 1898, a major breakthrough
took place when Major General Sir Herbert Kitchener, commander-in-
chief of the British-controlled Egyptian army, arrived with an army to
retake Khartoum, the capital of Sudan. The city had been captured 15
years earlier by the Mahdists, a rebellious local militia who had murdered
General Charles Gordon and all the British inhabitants. To reach
Khartoum from Egypt, Kitchener needed a railroad to convey the troops
south from Wadi Halfa on the Nile, in order to bypass hundreds of miles
of unnavigable sections of the river. Experts dismissed the idea as
impossible, but Kitchener found his equivalent of Pauling in a much
more orthodox character—a brilliant and experienced young French-
Canadian railroad engineer called Percy Girouard.
Girouard identified a route that included a 250-mile (400-km)
shortcut across the desert to Abu Hamed instead of following the
winding river Nile, which took nearly 600 miles (1,000km) to reach the
same point. It was not easy terrain, as the young Winston Churchill—
who combined the roles of journalist and officer in Kitchener’s army—
explained: “it is scarcely within the power of words to describe the savage
desolation of the regions into which the lines and its constructors
plunged.” Kitchener took the long view and decided that the line should
be built using the “Cape Gauge,” in view of the possible link up with
Rhodes’ line. Girouard established a veritable “railway town” at Wadi
Halfa on the Nile, as well as a railhead—a mobile town complete with a
station, stores, and a canteen—and reached half-way to Khartoum in a
mere six months, on the same day that Pauling reached Bulawayo.
The line reached Atbara near Khartoum nine months later, in time
to enable Kitchener to avenge Gordon at the Battle of Omdurman in
September 1898. The battle was a virtual massacre that cost only 50
British lives, while several thousand Mahdi followers perished. As
Churchill pointed out, such a war “was primarily a matter of transport.
The Khalifa [the Mahdi’s official title] was conquered on the railway.”
The conquest had a major political repercussion for the British Empire.
Joseph Chamberlain, the imperialist Colonial Secretary, later told a
reporter: “you will live to see the time when a railroad will be built
through that country to the Great Lakes, the Transvaal, and the Cape.”
BATTLE OF OMDURMAN, 1898

General Kitchener took bloody revenge for the
killing of General Gordon by the Mahdist militia
at Omdurman. His army reached the battlefield
by train, on a purpose-built line.
“Build the bridge across the Zambezi

where the trains, as they pass, will
catch the spray of the Falls”
CECIL RHODES
Back in the south of the African continent, just before the Boer War
broke out in 1899, Pauling had promised to fulfil Rhodes’ dream to
build a yet-more-ambitious line. He committed to extending the
tracks from Salisbury to the Zambezi River at Victoria Falls, and then
on to the Congo border at Likasi—more than 1,000 miles (1,600km) of
track. It was projected that this track would take 14 years to lay.
However, plans were delayed for three years by the war.
The railroads, commanded by the ubiquitous Girouard, proved to be
vital for British communications during the conflict, but required a
high proportion of British troops in order to guard the lines against
attack. The first stretch of the new line was relatively simple, and the 300
miles (480km) of track across open savannah countryside arrived at the
Zambezi in 1904. Soon the Zambezi Express from Cape Town was
providing a regular service to the north. The seemingly impossible task
of crossing the 650-ft (200-m) span of the Victoria Falls was achieved
when the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company of Darlington in
northeast England built a bridge to specifications set out by the British
engineer George Hobson. It took five months to build, and was then
shipped to the heart of Africa, where it was constructed on site.
The next extension of the line had a sound economic object: the
enormous reserves of coal at Wankie, and the equally staggering
riches of copper in the so-called Copper Belt at Broken Hill. Both
areas were in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), and the route to
reach them required a bridge even longer than that at Victoria Falls.
Designed by Hobson, the structure that crossed the Kafue river had
13 steel spans and was completed in 1906 in a mere five months.
Pauling and his colleagues had become even more adept at managing
these huge construction projects, and completed the 281 miles
(450km) from Kalomo, the existing railhead 50 miles (80km) north of
the Zambezi, to Broken Hill (now Kabwe) in just 277 working days.
The impetus behind the project, however, had been greatly reduced
following the death of Rhodes in 1902 at the age of just 48. His
ZAMBEZI BRIDGE
The suspension bridge over the Zambezi River at the
Victoria Falls was an astonishing feat of engineering,
originally constructed in England and reassembled in
situ. Rhodes did not live to see it erected in 1905.
successor was Robert Williams, a Scottish mining engineer who

lacked Rhodes’ British imperial vision. However, after three years
of negotiations, Williams obtained concessions from the Belgian
authorities to continue the railroad into the recently annexed
Belgian Congo. The line finally left British-controlled territory in
1909 on its way north to the Katanga region—which had even bigger
deposits of copper and other minerals than Northern Rhodesia—
rather than east to Tanganyika, which was a colony of German East
Africa at the time. It eventually reached Bukama, 450 miles (725km)
further along the Congo River, in 1918, the year before a defeated
Germany was divested of all of its East African territories.
By the end of World War I, the idea of a grand imperial railroad all
the way down the spine of Africa was abandoned. Instead, efforts
were concentrated on building the shortest route to export the
Congo’s minerals to Europe; to this end, the Benguela railroad in
Angola was extended to Lobito Bay on the Atlantic. However, this
appallingly difficult route of more than 800 miles (1,200km) would
not be complete until 1929. Until then, a tenuous—and somewhat
roundabout—rail link did indeed run from the Cape to Cairo, also
using ferries to cross lakes and the River Nile. A few hardy travelers
succeeded in traveling along the entire route—that, surely, could
count as a success for Rhodes’ vision, given the monumental scale of
the task of crossing the continent.
Cape to Cairo
A Victorian imperial ideal with the goal of opening the African ALGERIA
continent up to commerce, Cecil Rhodes’ ambitious plan for a
north–south railroad across British colonial Africa was never
fully realized. The challenges of the terrain, local opposition,
and a lack of finance to meet the huge material demands of
laying iron rails across mountain, jungle, and desert meant that,
by the close of World War I, pragmatism had overcome idealism. FRENCH
WEST
Africa’s abundant natural resources of diamonds, gold, and AFRICA
copper became the main destination of its railroads. This map
shows the sections of the Cape to Cairo line that were completed
between the 1880s and the 1920s, and its connecting railways.
NIGERIA
K EY
City
Town
Main line
Regional line
River route
Colonial
boundary
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
LINE OPENING
A branch of the Cape to
Cairo line from Beira on
the Mozambique coast to
Salisbury (now Harare) in
Northern Rhodesia (now
Zimbabwe) opened on June
19, 1899. The arrival of the
first train in Salisbury was
celebrated by the line’s
engineers, George Pauling
and Alfred Lawley, with
British imperial pomp.
CAPE TO CAIRO 223
MEDITERRANEAN
Alexandria Port Said
CAIRO Suez PE
RS
IA
NG
L I BYA ULF
EGYPT Aswan
Nile
SAUDI
RE
ARABIA
ver
DS
i
R
Wadi Halfa
EA
Abu Hamed Port
Sudan
Atbara
Massaua
A F R IC A
Omdurman
KHARTOUM Asmara FA DE N
GU LF O
Kosti DJIBOUTI
R IAL
ADDIS BRITISH
ANGLO- ABABA SOMALILAND
EGYPTIAN
TO
Diredawa
SUDAN
UA
Akaki
ABYSSINIA
EQ
KAMERUN
CH
ITALIAN
EN
UGANDA BRITISH SOMALILAND

EAST AFRICA
FR
Jinja Tororo
Kisangani KAMPALA Eldoret
BELGIAN
CONGO
Nakuru
Thika
INDIAN
RUANDA
Point
Loudima
Brazzaville URUNDI
Kisumu
Mwanza
NAIROBI
Moshi
OCEAN
Noire
Kigoma Arusha MOMBASA
Kinshasa Shinyanga
Matadi Kananga Kalemi Mpwapwa DAR ES SALAAM
Luanda Bukama
GERMAN
Dondo
ANGOLA Kolwezi EAST
Likasi
Lobito Lubumbashi AFRICA
Vila Luso
Silva Porto Broken Hill Vila Cabral
Kitwe Moçambique
Benguela NORTHERN RHODESIA
Lusaka
Kalomo Mazabuka K a
fu e R iv e r Nampula
Moçâmedes Entre Rios
Victoria Falls e r SALISBURY
R iv
GERMAN SOUTH Z a m b e z i Que Que MOZAMBIQUE
WEST AFRICA Livingstone
Wankie Gwelo Beira MADAGASCAR
Tsumeb Bulawayo
SOUTHERN Vila Pery
Windhoek
Swakopmund RHODESIA
Walvis Bay
BECHUANNALAND
Mafeking PRETORIA
Maputo
JOHANNESBURG
Vryburg Benoni
SWAZILAND
Kimberley Pietermaritzburg
UNION OF Bloemfontein DURBAN
SOUTH AFRICA
CAPE Worcester Queenstown BASUTU LAND
Oudtshoorn
TOWN East London
Port Elizabeth
Mossel Bay
C A PE
O F G O O D HO PE
Electricity
Lightens the Load
S TEAM LOCOMOTIVES WERE ALMOST UNIVERSAL on the

railroads by the end of the 1830s, once horses had been taken off the
tracks. It was not until the end of the 19th century that electric power
began to challenge steam’s supremacy on the rails. Although electricity
has numerous advantages over steam—it is cleaner, more efficient, and
ultimately cheaper—it requires greater capital investment, as power has
to be provided either by an external delivery system, most commonly
an overhead wire or third rail, or by an internal system such as an
onboard power generator—technologies that demand a high initial
outlay. However, once its benefits had been seen, it superseded steam.
Britain was again a pioneer with electric trains, as it had been with
the steam engine (see pp.22–29), although it lost out in the technological
race once electricity was more widely adopted. As early as 1837, a chemist
from Aberdeen, Robert Davidson, made the first electric locomotive. It
was battery-powered, as was a second version named Galvani (after its
galvanic cells, or batteries) that was exhibited at the Royal Scottish
Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. This massive, 7-ton (7.7-tonne) vehicle
managed to haul a load of 6 tons (6.7 tonnes) at 4mph (6.5kph) for a
EL ECT R ICI T Y L IGH T ENS T H E LOA D 225
distance of 1½ miles (2.5km), and was tested on the Edinburgh and

Glasgow Railway the following year. However, the perennial problem of
batteries running out of power—which still limits their use in
transportation today—meant Galvani was not much practical use.
Railroad workers also opposed it, fearing electric trains would ruin their
livelihoods, and destroyed the engine in a fit of Luddite pique.
German industrialist Werner von Siemens developed the first electric
passenger train in 1879, and exhibited it on a 985-ft (300-m) circular track
in Berlin, Germany. The train operated for several months, using a
third-rail system to reach a speed of 8mph (13kph). Britain’s first electric
passenger railroad, the narrow-gauge Volk’s electric railroad (named
after its inventor, Magnus Volk), was completed in 1883 and, remarkably,
still survives today, running 1¼ miles (2km) along Brighton’s seafront. A
low-voltage electric generator originally supplied a 50-V current to the
small engine via the two running rails. Later the voltage was increased
and the gauge widened from a narrow 2ft (60cm) to 2ft 8½in (80cm).
Some fascinating early experiments with electricity took place
elsewhere. In Ireland, William Traill used hydro-electricity from a local
waterfall to power a railroad for visitors to the Giant’s Causeway tourist
SIEMENS’ FIRST ELECTRIC PASSENGER TRAIN

Werner von Siemens’ train was exhibited at the Berlin
Trade Fair in 1879, to the excitement of visitors. Over a
four-month period, 86,000 passengers took a trip on it.
BRITAIN’S FIRST ELECTRIC PASSENGER RAILROAD

High seas crash around the Volk’s electric railroad along
Brighton’s seafront. Opened in 1883, it carried 30,000
passengers in its first six months, and still runs today.
attraction. Traill built the 9¼-mile (15-km) Giant’s Causeway, Portrush,

and Bush Valley Railway on a 3-ft (90-cm) gauge, and installed turbines
and dynamos to provide the power. However, electricity generation was
unreliable when the railroad opened in 1887, and steam engines were
used to supplement the electric power. Reliability improved once the
supply was converted to overhead wires rather than the third rail, which
was also hazardous to people crossing the line—in 1895, a cyclist died
from electric shock after touching the live rail. Despite its mixed success,
Traill’s railroad was ahead of its day in ecological terms, and many lines
since, especially in the mountains, have been powered by more
sophisticated forms of hydro-energy.
The exception to the near universal adoption of steam for railroads
at their inception had been the trolleys—omnibuses that used tracks
through towns, so that they would not get stuck on muddy roads.
Steam engines trundling through towns would have been not only
dangerous but also impractical, as they operated poorly at slow speeds
when they had to stop and start a lot, so horses remained the sole form
of traction. Consequently, horse-drawn trams were the norm until the
electric tramways began to emerge—skipping a technological step.
The first commercial electric tram line opened in Lichterfelde, a suburb
of Berlin, in 1881. It was built by Werner von Siemens, who had exhibited
the first electric train two years earlier. In 1883, the Mödling and
Hinterbrühl Tram—the first regular service in the world powered
from an overhead line—opened near Vienna, in Austria.
In the US, electric trolleys (the American name for tramways) were
pioneered in 1888, on the Richmond Union Passenger Railway in
Virginia. The new technology encouraged rapid expansion and in just
over 10 years, trolleycars had become almost universal across the
country: there had been just 3,000 miles (4,800km) of horse tramways
prior to electrification; by 1905, there were more than 20,000 miles
(32,000km) of electric trolley lines and the trolleycar became the most
common form of urban travel. Although there was a potential hazard
associated with trolleys powered from overhead lines, which occasionally
resulted in electric shocks, in practice this seems to have been rare.
Elsewhere, the increasing use of tunnels, especially in urban areas
and through mountainous regions, stimulated the need for electric
locomotives. Despite the success of London’s Metropolitan Railway (see
pp.130–37), which opened in 1863, it soon became apparent that steam
engines in tunnels caused dangerous levels of smoke, leading local
authorities to prohibit their use within city limits. Once again Britain,
which had developed the first underground railroad, blazed the trail,
with a line using electricity. The 3¼-mile (5.1-km) City and South
London Railway, the world’s first deep subterranean line, which opened
in 1890, was bored through the London clay, so the whole railroad was
below ground. Steam could not be used in the poorly ventilated
tunnels. At first, cables were suggested as an alternative form of
traction, but in the end electricity was used. Small engines provided the
power, and at times they could not cope with the heavily loaded trains
on the line, which had proved to be an instant success. As a result, it was
not unknown for trains to fail to make it up the incline at King William
Street, the terminus for the line in the City, and to have to roll back for
a second attempt. Nevertheless, electricity rapidly became the power
supply of choice for underground railroads and soon the power units
were fitted under the passenger cars, eliminating the need for a
separate locomotive. The early lines of the London Underground,
which had been steam-powered (see pp.130–37), were all converted to
electricity in the first decade of the 20th century.
The mountains and tunnels of Switzerland made it an obvious site
for electric-powered trains. In 1896, the first commercial electric trains
ran on the Lugano Tramway and, by 1899, a 25-mile (40-km) stretch of
AMERICAN TROLLEY
An electric trolley, or
streetcar, in Washington
DC, in 1895. Within
10 years of their
introduction, electric
trolleycars had become
the most popular form
of urban transportation
in the US.
main line between Burgdorf and Thun had been electrified. It was on
its mountain routes, however, that Switzerland pioneered electrification.
The Simplon Tunnel line was powered by electricity when it opened
in 1906 and the St. Gotthard line demonstrated the advantage of
electric traction when it was introduced in 1920. Whereas two steam
engines struggled to climb up the steep grades pulling a 200-ton
(224-tonne) load at 20mph (32kph), one electric locomotive could
haul a load of 300 tons (336 tonnes) up at 30mph (48kph). After that,
electrification became the norm in Switzerland and began to spread
rapidly across Europe. The Swiss success with electricity, combined
with a coal shortage after World War I and an abundance of cheap
hydro-electricity, drove its progress. Italy, which had already
electrified a couple of its mountain lines, and France both drew up
ambitious plans to electrify many of their main lines. Technical
problems combined with the resistance of railroad managers who
still favored steam held up France’s program. Italy, however, rapidly
expanded its electrified services, driven by Mussolini, the nation’s
dictator after 1925, who saw electric trains as epitomizing modernity.
The United States had just beaten Switzerland to become the first
country to electrify a main line when, in 1895, it opened a 4-mile
(6.5-km) stretch of the Baltimore Belt Line of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad—a connection from the main line to New York through a
series of tunnels around the edges of Baltimore’s downtown. A 1903
decision by the New York State legislature to outlaw the use of smoke-
generating locomotives on Manhattan and in rail tunnels under the
Hudson River boosted electrification in the US. As a result, electric
locomotives began operation on the New York Central Railroad in
1906. In the 1930s, the Pennsylvania Railroad, which had introduced

electric locomotives because of the regulation, electrified all its lines
east of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Despite the obvious advantages of electrification, the conversion
of railroads to electric power remained patchy. This was partly because
railroad managers were resistant to change, but also because it was hard
for them to know which of the plethora of incompatible systems to
choose. Many different kinds of electric technology were used: as well
as various delivery systems, there was a wide variety of voltages,
different phases (one-, two-, or three-phase), and types of current—DC
(Direct) and AC (Alternating). Even today, there are numerous systems
in operation, which hampers the integration of services, especially
across national borders.
The most difficult choice that promoters of electrification had to
make was whether to use a third-rail or an overhead system. For the
most part, overhead was used for mainline railroads, while commuter
lines and suburban systems were generally equipped with a third rail.
Sir Herbert Walker, the general manager of Britain’s Southern Railway
from 1923 to 1937, was a great pioneer of electrification in the country.
He decided on the use of a third-rail rather than an overhead system—
indeed, on the Brighton line, he replaced the existing overhead with a
third-rail system. Nowadays, this is seen as outmoded and inefficient,
as it relies on low voltages. However, with a network of more than 1,000
miles (1,600km) of suburban and regional railroad equipped with a
third rail, it would now be prohibitively expensive to convert to
overhead operation. The London Underground is unusual in that it
operates on a four-rail system—one of the only ones in the world (the
fourth rail helps to increase the total voltage available).
It was not until after World War II that new railroads were almost
invariably powered by electricity and the majority of existing main
lines in Europe were electrified. Oddly, however, despite its early
adoption of electric-powered trains, very little of the US rail
network is electrified today—a few passenger lines in the northeast,
and some commuter services—while most mainline trains are
powered by diesel engines. In India, too, many trains are still diesel-
powered, but in most modernizing Asian countries, electrification
of busy lines is now standard, and all high-speed trains around the
world are electrically powered.
Going Electric
In the 19th century, electric trains were seen as a cleaner alternative
to smoke- and soot-belching steam locomotives. The first electric
trams appeared in the 1880s, with electric trains following in the
20th century. Cheaper diesel-electric engines arrived in the 1930s.
NER NO.1 (1904) ENGLISH ELECTRIC NO.788 (1930)

One of two Class ES1 electric locomotives A small locomotive used for switching at
run by North Eastern Railway (Britain), the English Electric engineering works,
No.1 featured a “steeplecab”—a centrally No.788 drew its power from rechargeable
mounted cab—and could be powered by batteries. This class was used for a range
overhead lines or an electrified third rail. of light industrial applications in Britain.
PENNSYLVANIA
RAILROAD NO.4465 (1963)
No.4465 was an E44-class
electric freight locomotive
built by General Electric.
A versatile and reliable
engine, the E44’s six
traction motors could
produce a top speed of
70mph (112kph).
Steeplecab design
Body shell welded for bi-directional
rather than bolted for travel
streamlined look
PENNSYLVANIA
RAILROAD
NO.4935 (1943)
Nicknamed “Blackjack,”
No.4935 was a GG1-
class electric passenger
locomotive that was
later pressed into freight
service. Industrial
designer Raymond
Lowey’s distinctive
streamlining hides a
powerful locomotive
with concrete ballast
for greater traction. “Cat’s whiskers” paint scheme Three-axle truck
231
SNCF BB9004 (1954) DB CLASS 160 “BUGELEISEN” (1927–34)

The BB9004 was a high-speed electric German national railroad Deutsche Bahn
locomotive built for French national railroad operated a fleet of 14 Class 160 electric
SNCF. In 1955 it set a world speed record of switching locomotives between 1927 and
205mph (331kph) on the same day that another 1983. Its distinctive appearance led to the
SNCF engine, the CC 7107, achieved the same nickname bugeleisen (“iron”), due to the
feat. The record was not beaten until 2006. placement of the cab behind the engine.
CONRAIL NO.2233 (1963) JRF FREIGHT EH200 DC (2001)

Consolidated Railroads arose in 1976 out of The EH200 class was an electric freight train
the wreckage of six failed railroad companies. built by Toshiba for JR Freight, Japan’s main
This general-purpose GP-30 diesel-electric cargo carrier. With a top speed of 70mph
locomotive was one of the “second generation” (110kph) and a power output of 6,061hp
of diesel engines, and was first unveiled by the (4,520kw), its primary uses are for hauling
Electro Motive Division of General Motors. oil tanks and working steep grades of track.
Pantograph collects
AC from overhead
The GG1-class was power lines
79ft 6in (24m) long
and 15ft (4.5m) high
Articulated frame for negotiating curves

The People Who Ran

the Railroads
R AILROADS NEEDED MASSIVE NUMBERS of people to keep

them running. Once the tracks were laid and the labor force of
navvies had dispersed, a whole range of new personnel was required:
engineers, firemen, porters, conductors, brakemen, maintainers,
track workers, and tower operators. From their inception, many
railroads were responsible for the largest workforce in their country.
During the early days, and in many countries well into the 20th
century, this workforce was almost exclusively male, and it was only
during and after the World Wars that women began to be employed
on the railroads in any number.
When the Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened in England in
1830 (see pp.25–29), it was not only the first commercial passenger
railroad line in the world, but it also introduced many standards and
practices that other railroad companies all around the globe would
follow. Strict discipline and attention to detail were vital in order for
the trains to run on time and to ensure the safety of the new railroads,
so employees were expected to follow military-style rules and wear
smart uniforms. Since the armed services were the only contemporary
organizations comparable in size and scale to the railroads, inevitably
their ex-personnel became a major source of trained, well-disciplined
labor. Indeed, many of the first workers who took up posts as porters,
engineers, firemen, and track workers were former soldiers or sailors.
As the railroad business boomed in the mid-19th century, running
the increasingly large companies required new skills and new types of
professional workers, such as specialist engineers, accountants, lawyers,
and managers. Many of these workers were also recruited from the
armed services, but this time from the officer ranks. This did nothing
to lessen the military character of the early railroads, and issuing
“orders of the day”—setting out the daily tasks to be undertaken—
became a popular practice at this time. However, the railroads were not
solely the domain of military men; white-collar jobs such as ticket-
office clerks were snapped up by anyone with a modicum of education,
and the rapidly expanding industry was so different from any other
that training mostly consisted of learning on the job.
T H E PEOPL E W HO R A N T H E R A I LROA DS 233
STATION MASTER, 1904

The role of station master was
a much-sought-after white
collar job. This station master
at Finmere Station, Oxfordshire
in England would have been
an important, well-respected
figure in his local community.
In many countries, the

structure of the railroads
simply reflected the dominant
social or political hierarchy.
When India was under British
colonial rule (pre-1947), the
laborers and unskilled staff
were native people, but
managers were predominantly
white Europeans, or Eurasians
with an Indian mother and a
European father. Recruiting
people to work on the railroads was more difficult in parts of the
world where the tracks traversed inhospitable and sparsely populated
territory. On the Trans-Siberian Railway, completed in 1916 (see
pp.180–89), some of the local workforce consisted of convicts who had
been sent east to Siberia as punishment, but the railroad company
could not afford to be too selective in its recruitment. Thus, many of
the security guards hired to guard property at night had been
banished to Siberia for robbery, passengers were often served by
conductors and ticket clerks who had committed violent crimes, and
large stretches of track were maintained by murderers and rapists.
The rules of the railroads were strict and workers would be fired
instantly for serious offenses, such as falling asleep on the job, or have
their wages docked for more minor transgressions, such as “deserting”
their post to get a cup of tea. It was hardly surprising, however, that
some people fell asleep at work: workers toiled for up to 16 hours a day,
six days a week. Furthermore, some of the restrictions placed on
railroad workers were notoriously harsh. Engineers on delayed trains
received no extra pay, or time off in lieu, even if they worked several
extra hours. Employees could be fired without any warning, but they
were required to give employers three month’s notice if they wanted to
PENN STATION LUGGAGE, 1910

Porters were a vital part of the early
railroads. They carried out of a variety
of duties, including carrying the
passengers’ luggage.
leave. A London and South Western Railway Company employee who

failed to give the required notice was prosecuted and sentenced to three
weeks’ hard labor in a case that served as a warning to others.
Discipline was largely the domain of special police forces, employed
by individual railroad companies. A railroad policeman’s duties
included keeping order at stations, on the railroad, and in the local area
around the railroad; removing trespassers and protecting railroad
property. Most policemen carried a billy club and gun as weapons.
In most countries, working for the railroads was highly regarded,
especially at the beginning of the railroad age. Even unskilled men
could earn relatively high wages—railroad laborers
earned twice as much as farm laborers. The relatively
good pay, strict rules, and the stylish uniform gave the
new industry prestige and afforded its workers a certain
level of respect. Corporate loyalty was also strong as
working for the railroads offered long-term stability, a
permanent job in a world where that was a rarity,
particularly in rural areas. Many men spent their whole
working lives in the railroad industry and jobs were often
kept within families for several generations. Railroad
companies were usually keen to employ multiple
members of the same family because they saw it as
another way of fostering loyalty. The English railroad
companies also devised other ways of keeping their
employees happy: many jobs required working in remote
areas so housing was provided at very reasonable rents. In
towns, too, where workers had to start very early, housing
was often provided near depots and stations. Providing
cheap, convenient housing meant that workers would be
reluctant to leave their jobs since it would make them,
and their families, homeless. Moreover, the most efficient
and most loyal workers were rewarded with the best
homes. As Frank McKenna puts it in his history of
POLICING THE RAILS
Railroad police certainly looked the part; they wore
stylish uniforms and had military-style ranks. Police
officers carried billy clubs featuring the crest of the
railway company, such as the Midland Counties
(England) left. Senior police, such as detectives, carried
a brass or ivory staff with a crown at the tip.
railroad workers, “from the earliest days, the companies used housing
policy as a means of staff control and for the preservation of company
loyalty.” Free or concessionary fares for employees and their families
were also a widespread benefit in kind that still exists today.
The railroad companies, therefore, took a paternalistic approach,
controlling their employees with a firm but seemingly generous
hand. However, railroad work was often very dangerous (only
mining and fishing had a higher casualty rate), although most
employers did not feel inclined to address the problem. The most
hazardous jobs were switching and coupling or decoupling cars, as
this involved working on the track right next to moving trains, but
all track workers faced a high risk of being hit by a train. Moreover,
in the early days of the railroads, individual cars didn’t have brakes,
so when the engineer stopped the locomotive, the cars simply
bumped into each other to stop. On average, more than five times as
many workers were killed in railroad accidents as passengers. In
Britain in the first half of the 1870s, for example, there was an average
of 782 worker deaths per year. In the US, the number of fatalities was
even greater, with more than 2,000 dying in 1888 alone, a toll which
belatedly led to the sponsoring of the Railroad Safety Appliance Act
in 1893, which gradually began to reduce the number of accidents.
Eventually, the loyalty of the railroads’ employees was simply pushed
too far. Concerns over safety, wages that hadn’t kept pace with other
industries, and autocratic management led railworkers to join
“The great object… is, to place

the two rival powers of capital
and labor on an equality so that
the fight between them, so far
as fight is necessary, should be
at least a fair one”
BRITISH PRIME MINISTER HENRY CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN
ON THE 1906 TRADES DISPUTES ACT
CLIMBING THE LADDER

During the latter part of the 20th
century, health and safety at work
became a serious issue. As trade
unions grew, the welfare of workers
became a major concern at last.
together to form trade unions, which

could coordinate campaigns for
improvements to pay and conditions.
The traditional loyalty that workers
felt toward the railroad companies
began to erode. In Britain, trade unions
started to be organized in the 1860s. In
1867, workers on the North Eastern
Railway went on strike over working
hours—they wanted the company to
agree to a maximum ten-hour-day or
sixty-hour-week, which does not seem unreasonable by modern
standards. However, the company reacted aggressively by employing
strikebreakers and firing the strikers, so the strike collapsed.
However, trade unionism could not be held back for long and
gradually organized labor movements gained a foothold over the
ensuing couple of decades. Membership of unions grew quickly,
and employers had to take notice. The unions were able to wrest a
few concessions from the railroad companies, principally over the
long hours and lack of overtime pay, but the companies were far
from happy about it. In Britain, matters came to a head on the small
Taff Valley Railway, a line serving several coal mines in South
Wales. The Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants union had
successfully negotiated a 60-hour-week in 1890, following a brief
strike, but the Taff Vale Railway Company still failed to recognize
the union officially. This provoked a second strike by the workers in
1900, but the company decided to sue the union. In 1901, the strike
was judged to have been illegal and the union was ordered to pay
£42,000 ($205,000) in compensation to the company, a judgment
that made any further industrial action in Britain impossible. This
incident provoked a bitter public reaction and as a result the
Conservative government was heavily defeated in the 1906 general
election. The new government, led by the Liberals, introduced the
Trades Disputes Act, which effectively gave trade unions immunity

from being sued in such circumstances. This resulted in a rapid
growth of union strength.
Other countries followed a similar pattern. In the US, railroad
workers began to organize into trade unions in the 1860s, but this was
strongly opposed by the railroad companies. Railroad workers were
involved in three major strikes in the last quarter of the 19th century
and although all of them ended in defeats for the unions, union
membership nevertheless increased and the rail companies were
forced to recognize them. The US public largely supported the workers’
desire for basic rights and in the early years of the 20th century trade
unions grew across the rail industry, and they remain relatively
strong in the 21st century. Similarly, in the Netherlands, railroad
companies were initially resistant to any legislation that would
restrict the number of hours that employees worked. So, in the late
1890s, brotherhoods began to form and in 1901 they coalesced into a
single trade union, the Federatie van Spoorwegorganisaties. The
union’s first strike, in January 1903, was in support of dockworkers
and immediately won concessions, but a second strike in April over
working conditions resulted in mass firings. Eventually, though,
hours were reduced and workers’ wages increased.
Today, railroads require far less labor. Interlocking towers have
been replaced by rail traffic control centers covering vast regions;
electric and diesel trains only require a single engineer; stations rarely
employ porters; ticket sales are often automated; and machines have
replaced people for some track safety and maintenance tasks. Some
modern subway systems are even operated without engineers, with
trains controlled by computers. The days when the railroads were the
largest and most prestigious employers are largely over, although
Indian Railways is still the ninth largest employer in the world.
However, with more than 620,000 miles (1,000,000km) of railroads
around the world, a significant, skilled workforce remains vital to
build, maintain, and operate the railroads.
The Wrong Side of

the Tracks
F ROM THE 1830s ONWARD, railroads became potential sources of

huge profit. People and goods could be transported further, faster,
and for less money than ever before. Those local merchants who had
invested in the earliest railroads, such as the Liverpool to Manchester
line (see pp.25–29), reaped the financial rewards. Further railroad
expansion was needed, and many people saw it as the perfect
opportunity to make lots of money. By the 1840s, the rapidly
expanding railroad system was attracting many new businessmen,
entrepreneurs, and investors, all hoping to see fat returns for their
money, if not always by honest means.
In 1859, a pioneering investigative journalist, D. Morier Evans,
described the situation in his book Facts, Failures and Frauds: “It is with the
railway mania of 1845 that the modern form of speculation may be
said to begin and the world has not yet recovered from the excitement
caused by the spectacle of sudden fortunes made without trouble.” It
was finance capitalism at its most primitive, with George Hudson (see
pp.55–55) typical of those who, in Evans’ words, were “pioneering new
lines through every difficulty” and establishing the many and various
ways in which he and his successors could defraud the public. Hudson
embezzled a fortune and ruined many investors along the way,
including the famous English literary family, the Brontës.
By modern standards of corporate governance, the promoters
responsible for many of the world’s railroads were dishonest. Yet
many of them, such as Henry Meiggs in South and Central America
“A man who has never gone to

school may steal from a freight car;
but if he has a university education,
he may steal the whole railroad”
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
T H E W RONG SI DE OF T H E T R AC K S 241
(see pp.198–203), made innovative contributions to the development

of the railroads. Even George Hudson belonged to the class of
railroad promoters who actually cared passionately about railroads,
as well as feathering their own nests. So perhaps the worst
scoundrels were those who contributed nothing to the actual
development of the railroads. John Sadleir, a successful Irish
financier and Lord of the (British) Treasury, who issued £150,000
(around $750,000) worth of forged shares in the Royal Swedish
Railway Company, certainly belonged to the latter category.
While John Sadleir eventually ruined himself, his railroad fraud
ensured that the Swedish government assumed responsibility for its
country’s rail system for the next 150 years. In this the Swedes were
typical of many European governments whose control over their
railroads was far more complete—and more honest—than the
British. The French, for instance, operated a system of controlled
regional monopolies. Nevertheless there remained opportunities for
those involved to enrich themselves, and some politicians often made
handsome, if completely unethical, profits from the railroads. In
Prussia (later part of Germany), Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had
no qualms about instructing his banker to buy shares in the railroads
he was proposing to nationalize—a process that made him a tidy
profit, but that would now be deemed illegal insider trading.
Perhaps inevitably, it was the US, with the biggest rail network
in the world (at that time), that provided crooks with the greatest
opportunities. The battle for control of the Erie Railroad in the
late 1860s really laid bare the world of railroad speculation—the
varied characters, the complex legal dealings, and the level of
political involvement. The battle was immortalized by Charles
Francis Adams, a grandson and great-grandson of
United States presidents and himself a railroad
man, in his book Chapters of Erie (1871). The Erie
Railroad had never been profitable, he
explained, but industrialist Cornelius
JOHN SADLEIR
John Sadleir was immortalized by several
writers, including Charles Dickens and
Anthony Trollope, who are believed to
have based on him the characters of Mr.
Merdle in Little Dorrit and Melmotte in
The Way We Live Now respectively.
“Commodore” Vanderbilt saw an opportunity to create a monopoly

of the tracks to Lake Erie and make some money. However, he
came up against a formidable trio of directors and speculators—
Jay Gould, who had acquired a reputation as the most sinister and
corrupt of railroad barons, and his two associates, Daniel Drew
and Jim Fisk. The Gould gang issued masses of stock—and bonds
convertible into stock—in order to dilute Vanderbilt’s holdings.
The ensuing battle spread to the courts and the politics of New
York State. When the battle reached the State legislature in Albany,
Vanderbilt looked like he was winning the hearts, minds, and
pockets of the legislators, but Gould got there first—at an estimated
cost of $1 million. In the end, Vanderbilt gave up.
ERIE SATIRE
Puck, a popular American magazine, published this
cartoon satirizing the struggle for control of the Erie
Railroad. Vanderbilt gleefully watches Jay Gould
drowning in a flood of his own watered-down stock.
Russia, too, was ripe for corruption. During the railroad boom in the
latter part of the 19th century, many lines were built by private
enterprise with the government guaranteeing a generous rate of return
on their investment. This proved highly lucrative. One of the big
railroad barons of the Russian railroads, Samuel Polyakov, manipulated
the companies he ran to ensure that he owned all the shares, thereby
reaping all the dividends. Polyakov also amassed shares in other
railroads, which he used as collateral against loans from foreign
bankers, betting on the expected rise in share value. While these
activities might just have been on the right side of the law, he also
artificially inflated costs of railroad construction in return for bribes to
state officials, usually paid with railroad shares. And he was not the
only one. In A History of Russian Railways J.N. Westwood writes: “Many
other important civil servants and even members of the royal family
(including apparently Tsar Alexander III’s brother, the Grand Duke
Nikolai Nikolaevich) received bribes in the form of shares from railway
promoters.” This corruption was endemic at all levels—even
conductors, who were poorly paid, would often allow a passenger to
travel for a “consideration,” usually around half the proper fare.
German philanthropist Baron Maurice von Hirsch died both
respected and respectable, yet he was also a railroad profiteer. Today,
his fortune, most of which he made on the Constantinople-to-Vienna
railroad, would be counted in billions. Hirsch was awarded a concession
by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to build lines in the open country,
which did not touch any towns. This left gaps that had to be filled,
which Hirsch did—expensively—and he was reckoned to have made
several million dollars from the construction contracts alone. To make
matters worse, the lines were built so shoddily that they required
extensive improvement. Hirsch increased his profits by issuing “loans”
to himself at cheap rates, then selling them on to banks at a profit. (The
banks then sold them to the public even more expensively.)
Every aspect of railroad promotion, construction, management,
and operation attracted its own type of crimes and criminals.
Unsurprisingly, given the crowds, stations were favorite haunts of
pickpockets and other opportunistic rogues. The managers of the
London and North Western, Britain’s largest railroad company, were,
according to the historian of the line,“at their wits’ end to find out the
blackguards. Not a night passes without wine hampers, silk parcels,
drapers’ boxes or provisions being robbed; and if the articles are not
valuable enough they leave them about the station.” In the US,
cardsharps proliferated on the railroads, including the infamous “Poker
Alice” Ives, a petite, blue-eyed beauty whose winning combination of
card skills and feminine wiles made her a very successful gambler.
Access to the files of a railroad company also provided rich pickings
for forgers and con artists. None was more successful than Leopold
Redpath, a British clerk at the Great Northern Railway, the company
that owned the tracks between London and York. Redpath was assisted
in his deception by the fact that the company had numerous kinds of
stock, bearing various rates of dividend, and therefore intricate
calculations were required to determine the level of payments to
which the owners of the certificates were entitled. Redpath forged
share certificates in which he was both buyer and seller, or, more
cunningly, added the figure “1” to genuine documents bought by him,
transforming, say, £250 to £1,250. In total, Redpath is believed to have
embezzled an astonishing £220,000 (about $29 million in today’s
money) through forgery and speculation on the company’s stocks and
shares (which was also forbidden). Interestingly, although he used his
ill-gotten gains to live a comfortable and luxurious life, Redpath also
became a philanthropist; as Evans summarizes:
never was money obtained with more wicked subtlety; never was it spent
more charitably. A greater rogue, so far as robbery is concerned, it were
difficult to find; nor a more amiable and polished benefactor to the poor
and the friendless.
Ultimately, it took the revelation of anomalies in the affairs of another

business, the Crystal Palace Company, to prompt a similar investigation
at the Great Northern Railway.
WILLIAM ROBSON STOLE This lead to the discovery of
Redpath’s deception and resulted
$132,000 in his conviction and banishment

to a penal colony in 1857. Redpath
was not alone, however; his defense
counsel revealed that when
Redpath joined the Northern “he
(£27,000) FROM THE found in the office of the company
CRYSTAL PALACE a widespread system of speculation
COMPANY IN 1855 and of trading in stocks and shares
under other people’s names—names not infrequently entirely utterly

fictitious.” It is impossible to know how many similar frauds occurred
during this time, but have remained undetected.
One railroad crime from this era stands out for its cunning
execution—the theft of £12,000 of gold bullion (around $1.6 million
in today’s money) in 1855 from a South-Eastern Railway train
traveling from London to Folkestone, Kent. It was largely an inside
job involving Messrs. Burgess, a guard, Tester, a clerk, and Pierce, a
ticket-printer and con artist, together with Edward Agar, a long-time
professional thief. The plan was devised by Pierce and Agar: the gold
was bound for France, and would be transferred from the train to the
ship at Folkestone. On the way to Folkestone, it was carried in a
guard’s van in safes with two separate locks and was then weighed at
the docks to ensure that nothing had been stolen. The gang managed
to acquire impressions of both sets of locks and enough lead to
counter the weight of the gold. They were able to board the train,
open the safes, extract the gold, and replace it with the lead, all before
the train reached Folkestone. It was so wonderfully simple and the
scheme only unraveled when Agar was arrested for an unrelated
crime. He asked Pierce to provide for Fanny Kay, the mother of one of
his children, but Pierce failed to do so. Kay then revealed the plan to
the railroad company and Agar confessed, implicating the other
three to reduce his own sentence.
Thus the early commercial railroads attracted a wide range of
crooks and cheats, forgers and con artists, speculators and schemers
from every echelon of society, all looking to line their pockets while
emptying others’. As Samuel Smiles put it in his 1857 biography of
“father of the railways,” George Stephenson: “Folly and knavery were
for a time in the ascendant. The sharpers [cardsharps] of society were
let loose and jobbers and schemers became more and more plentiful.
They threw out railway schemes as lures to catch the unwary.”
WHAT A CARVE UP!

Entrepreneurs Cornelius Vanderbilt, Jay
Gould, Russell Sage, and Cyrus W. Field
are shown dividing up the United States’
railroads in 1882, as European royalty
watch from across the Atlantic Ocean.
Indian Hill Railroads:

Climbing Out of the Heat
T HERE WERE MANY REASONS to build railroads: to carry

passengers and freight; to unite towns, villages, and nations; to
make money; or simply to stop other companies from building
them. The famous Indian hill railroads, however, owe their
existence to a very particular phenomenon—the British colonists’
dislike of the hot Indian summer.
Since their inception in 1853, the railroads in India had quickly
become a vital part of the way of life in the subcontinent, used by
both the Indians and the British, though mostly in separate cars or
trains. As the railroad network grew, the British realized that it
could also be the answer to the nagging question of how to avoid
the oppressive heat during the summer months. Leaving the towns
in the summer for cooler areas in the hills had long been a habit of
the colonists, but it was a long and arduous journey. Building the
Indian hill railroads, which would climb perilously steep inclines
to link the hill towns with the plains below, seemed the obvious, if
ambitious, solution. Such a venture seemed impossible at first,
however, as the hills in question—which included the foothills of
the mighty Himalayas—had grades that appeared too steep to
tackle. Yet as the 19th century wore on and railroad engineering
became more and more sophisticated, it was soon felt that no
mountain, ravine, or river could present any serious obstacle to the
iron road’s inexorable progress.
The first, and still the most famous, hill railroad to be built in
India was the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (DHR). It linked Siliguri
in the plains of the Himalayas (400ft/122m above sea level) with
Darjeeling in the Lesser Himalaya mountain range (6710ft/2,045m
above sea level), climbing nearly 1¼ miles (2km) in its 55-mile (88-km)
journey. Construction began in May 1879, just months after the
mainline railroad had reached Siliguri, and it aroused great interest
in India. In March 1880, Lord Lytton, the British Viceroy of India,
traveled on the first completed stretch of track, cheered on by huge
crowds. The line was completed in two years, which is truly
remarkable considering the challenges the engineers faced. For most
I N DI A N H I L L R A I L ROA D S : C L I M BI NG OU T OF T H E H E AT 249
CHUNBATTI RAILROAD LOOP, 1914

Originally the third loop of the Darjeeling Himalayan,
the Chunbatti loop is now the first and lowest after
the others were removed in 1942 and 1991.
of its length, the DHR ran alongside a newly built path, but while the
first 7 miles (11km) was a gentle incline, after that the grade became
much steeper, up to 1 in 23 (or 4 percent). This level of incline can be
problematic for a railroad without extra support, such as a rack or a
cable, but the DHR engineers avoided this by building a lighter,
narrow-gauge railroad. Later they also added loops, in which the
track passed over itself, and switchbacks, in which it reversed back on
itself, to reduce the sharpness of the grade further. One of the four
loops on the DHR was named Agony Point because of the perilous
tightness of the bend and its proximity to the precipice of the hill.
Perhaps surprisingly, the DHR was extremely profitable right
from the start. Not only did it carry British residents eager to escape
the summer heat and tourists who immediately flocked to see the
wonderful scenery, it also carried vast amounts of tea. In fact,
the arrival of the railroads helped the local tea industry to thrive.
Although the railroad was very slow, rarely reaching speeds of more
than 15mph (24kph), it was still much faster than the bullock carts that
used the road. As with the mainline Indian railroads, the hill railroads
AGONY POINT, 1910

The fourth loop on the Darjeeling Himalayan
Railway, Agony Point also has the tightest
curve. It is located just north of Tindharia
station, on the steepest part of the line.
also had a military function: building railroads deep into the Himalayas
enabled the British to establish control and create garrison towns that
would protect the most remote parts of the subcontinent.
In the early days, the mail train left Siliguri at 8:25am and
passengers were treated to an unparalleled experience as the train
climbed up through the cloud and early morning mist, steadily
navigating the steep grade to find the warmth and blue skies of
Darjeeling. An early description in Railway Magazine in 1897 recounts
an amazing climb up the Himalayan foothills:
And now we approach the culminating wonder of the line. At one place,
we have been able to count three lines of rail below us which we have just
traversed, and to see three more above us, up which we are going to
climb, making in all seven lines of track (counting the one we are on)
visible at one time, nearly parallel with each other at gradually rising
heights on the mountain side. But now the wheels groan with the lateral
pressure caused by a tremendous series of curves, and for a few breathless
seconds, the train seems transformed into a veritable snake, as we pass
‘Agony Point’ and in so doing traverse two complete circles of such
incredibly small diameter that the train, if at rest, would stretch round
more than half of the circumference of one of them.
Today, the DHR is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site,

honored for its innovation and socioeconomic impact. It is also still
a functioning railroad, carrying both local passengers—there is
even a special school train, which transports children to schools in
local towns—and countless tourists. The trains can be heard
anywhere on the mountain up to Darjeeling, thanks to the loud
horns that sound constantly, even managing to drown out the
trucks and buses. If they are lucky, passengers can see Mount Everest
in the distance, although the frequent mists and clouds make this
relatively rare (this author spent a week there without so much as a

glimpse of Everest). Incredibly, some of the original steam
locomotives supplied by the British company Sharp, Stewart & Co.
are still running, although they spend much of their time in the
workshop at Tindharia, a third of the way up the line. The line has
suffered from subsidence and landslides over the years and the
lower section was closed in 2010 following a major landslide, which
also washed away the adjoining road. Today, only the upper section
from Kurseong to Darjeeling remains in operation.
The next hill railroad project in India was the 3ft-3⅜-in (1-m)
gauge Nilgiri Mountain Railway (NMR) from Mettupalayam to
Udhagamandalam (more commonly known as Ooty) in Tamil
Nadu, South India. It had initially been proposed as a garrison line
way back in 1854 at the start of the Indian railroad age, but
construction did not begin until 1894. The NMR was even steeper
than the DHR, as the railroad had to climb more than 1 mile (1.6km)
from the plain to the summit, over a distance of 26 miles (42km).
Consequently, it took much longer to build than the Darjeeling
line and entailed far more major structures, including 108 curves,
16 tunnels, and a staggering 250 bridges. It did not open fully until
1908. The steepness, which at some points reached 1 in 12 (or
8 percent), was too great for a locomotive to manage on its own and
consequently for the first 17 miles (27km), between the towns of
Mettupalayam and Coonoor, the line used a rack and pinion system
to navigate the steep grade. This involved installing a third rail in
the middle of the track, with teeth similar to those on a gear
mechanism. A special toothed wheel on the locomotive then locked
in to the rail, enabling it to grip and help to pull the train up the
hill (see pp.108–109). Given the steepness of the line and its sharp
curves, it was a very slow journey, taking five hours to reach Ooty
at the top. As with the DHR, some very old steam locomotives still
DHR TRAIN
Due to the railroad’s narrow
gauge and the distinctive blue
trains that resembled beloved
fictional steam locomotive
Thomas the Tank Engine, the
Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
also became known as the
“Toy Train.”
travel on the line today. In honor of that fact, the NMR joined the
DHR as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005, and they became
known collectively as the Mountain Railways of India.
The third famous Indian hill railroad to be completed was the Kalka
to Shimla line, opened in 1906. Shimla (or Simla as it was then known)
was a much more important center for the British than Darjeeling or
Ooty. By the 1830s, it had become a well-established summer residence
for the British and was noted for its balls and other social highlights,
attended by colonial officers and senior administrators. Although the
roads up to the station were widened and improved with the construction
of the Hindustan–Tibet highway in 1850, it was still a four-day journey
RACK AND PINION

The Nilgiri Mountain Railway adopted a Swiss-designed
rack and pinion system, involving a third rail in the center
(see below) to cope with the steepness of the grade.
from the plains up to Shimla. WHEN IT IS EVENTUALLY

When, in 1863, Shimla became the COMPLETED THE KASHMIR
official summer capital of India it RAILWAY WILL EXTEND
meant that the whole paraphernalia
of government, even the military,
was moved between Calcutta and
Shimla twice a year.
Due to Shimla’s importance
to the colonists, it was vital that
214miles
a railroad should be built up to (345 KM)
the town, but it was a far more
complicated proposition than the other two hill railroads. As with
the DHR and the NMR, the Kalka to Shimla Railway was built to a
very narrow gauge (in this case 2ft 6in/762mm) to make it lighter
and to save construction time. Nevertheless, the railroad route
from Kalka to Shimla involved the construction of more than 806
bridges and, although many were little more than culverts over
streams, several were arched, multitiered structures rising from the
bottom of deep valleys.
In fact, there is a sad legend about the longest tunnel on the line
(number 33), which is nearly ¾ mile (1.2km) long. Colonel Barog, the
engineer of this tunnel, ordered digging to begin at both ends, but
the two sections were not properly aligned so they didn’t join up.
Barog was fined a nominal amount (1 rupee) by his employers, but he
could not cope with the stigma of his failure and committed suicide.
Another engineer completed the tunnel, but it was named the Barog
Tunnel in memory of the original engineer. Despite this minor
mishap, the 60-mile (97-km) line was a feat of engineering and came
to be known as the “British Jewel of the Orient.” The prolific railroad
writer O.S. Nock traveled on the line in the 1970s and was amazed at
the difficult terrain that the line traversed. He wrote:
The geology of the area is highly erratic. The formation consists of a

heterogeneous mass of boulders, clay containing small quantities of
sand and other debris, while in other locations it is a solid rocky mass.
There is frequent trouble during the monsoon season from slips and
subsidence, and these sometimes occur without any preliminary
warning because of the peculiar geology and the unpredictable
hydrology of the area.
He goes on to explain that he found the use of the word “erratic” by

local geologists rather strange until he traveled up the line and saw
for himself that the area posed particularly unique difficulties for the
construction of a railroad. It was worth it though. The line is one of
the most impressive in the world with spectacular views of the
Himalayan foothills and in 2008 the line was added to the UNESCO
World Heritage Site, the Mountain Railways of India.
Several other hill railroads were built during this era and are still
thriving today. These include the Kangra Valley Railway (opened to
passengers in 1929) in the sub-Himalayan region; the Matheran Hill
Railway (built in 1907), which ascends the western Ghats mountain
range in south; and the Lumding to Silchar line, built at the turn of
the 20th century, lying deep inside the state of Assam, in the Barak
river valley of the Cachar Hills. All of them are spectacular railroads,
providing a vital connection between remote hill towns and the
lowlands. However, Indian hill railroad-building is not just a thing of
the past: the Kashmir Railway, which aims to connect the region in
the outer Himalayas with the rest of the country, is an ongoing
challenge. First suggested in 1898, the proposed route includes major
earthquake zones, extreme climates, inhospitable terrain, and is
subject to continued conflict between India and Pakistan over
territorial rights to Kashmir. These geographical and political
difficulties combined to delay the start of building work until the late
20th century and completion is not estimated to happen until 2017,
well over a century after the line was first proposed.
KALKA TO SHIMLA RAILWAY

As well as more than 800 bridges of varying sizes
and complexity, the Kalka to Shimla line also
featured 107 tunnels, a figure which has since
been reduced to 102.
War and
Uncertainty
MALLARD, NO. 4468
LNER Class A4 PACIFIC
STEAM, 1938
T he railroads reached their apogee just before the outbreak of
World War I. Trains were now safer, cheaper, and faster than they
had ever been, and reached virtually every sizeable town and village in
the developed world. The United States was the world’s leader, with
more than 250,000 miles (400,000km) of line. Inevitably, it was the
railroads that bore the brunt of coping with the huge transportation
demands of the war. Not only did they take virtually all the war
materials to ports for dispatch overseas and to the front, but they also
carried millions of men off to war, and brought the casualties home.
Indeed, the armies built whole networks of narrow-gauge lines to carry
men and supplies right up to the front line. Railroads inevitably
became targets during the conflict, notably in the Middle East, where
Lawrence of Arabia led a series of assaults on the Hejaz Railway
controlled by the Ottoman Empire.
After the war, the railroad companies began to realize that they
had to look for alternatives to steam locomotion. There had been some
electrification before the war, but now diesel was being considered, and
both the Germans and the Americans created fast new diesel services
in an effort to improve journey times. Attempts were still made to
modernize steam locomotives, however, and the fastest ever speed by a
steam engine was reached in 1938 by the British locomotive Mallard.
The railroads remained prominent in World War II, in which they
saw their darkest hour—millions of Jews and other minority groups
were transported by train to the German concentration camps, and
thousands of prisoners died while constructing the Burma–Siam
railroad. Elsewhere, they played a vital part in the eventual Allied
victory over the Germans and the Japanese. However, the railroads
were poorly treated after the war—as soon as hostilities ended,
services closed in many countries as competition from road
transportation and aviation intensified.
260 WA R A N D U N C E RTA I N T Y
The Golden Age of

the Railroads
I N MANY WAYS, THE IDENTIFICATION OF a “golden age” of rail is

difficult. At various times there were many incredible railroads in
operation, and several companies undoubtedly enjoyed relatively long
periods of prosperity, but trouble always seemed to be around the next
bend. The problems came in varied forms—safety issues, worker
dissatisfaction and unrest, the need for further investment to improve
services and cope with new technology, the whims of hostile
governments, and, perhaps most crucially, the arrival of new methods
of transportation, such as the car, the semitruck, and later the airplane.
Initially, however, the railroads had a crucial advantage: for nearly
the whole of the first 100 years following the opening of the Liverpool to
Manchester line in 1830 (see pp.25–29) they were the only feasible form
of transportation for many types of journeys. Thanks to the railroads,
passengers could travel across whole continents, journey between a
nation’s major cities, commute between town centers and suburbs, and
even reach remote villages—and freight, too, could be moved swiftly
over great distances. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the
railroads had become a sophisticated industry—larger and more
influential than any other in existence at the time—and in the years
leading up to World War I in 1914 they reached the apogee of their power.
It was a time when the car was still the province of the rich and the lorry
was an unreliable contraption, and both had to cope with roads that, for
the most part, were rutted muddy tracks. It was a brief heyday for the
railways, but it was one that had deep and lasting effects.
By 1914, virtually every country in the world had entered the railroad
age. There were no absolute boundaries to the spread of the railroads,
and even the toughest natural obstacles—jungles, mountains, rivers,
and deserts—could be overcome by clever engineers. Latecomers,
ranging from Costa Rica (1890) to Hong Kong (1910) and Morocco (1911),
joined the established railroad nations in Europe and the Americas,
extending the iron road across most of the globe. The United States,
Europe, and Asia could boast transcontinental lines. Even some small
islands had substantial systems. Sicily, the biggest island in the
Mediterranean Sea, had more than 1,500 miles (2,400km) of line at
T H E G OL DEN AGE OF T H E R A I L ROA DS 261
the peak of its railroad age, and even the Isle of Wight, measuring just
150sq miles (380sq km), boasted 55 miles (89km) of line by the turn of
the 20th century. In the Caribbean, the island of Cuba had 64 miles
(103.5km) of railroad by 1849, mostly for carrying sugar.
Most countries embraced the railroads, particularly as their spread
seemed so inevitable, but there were some exceptions. China was the
last major nation in the world to give in to the incursion of the iron
road. Even when the first line was finally built between Shanghai and
Woosung in 1877, opposition to it was so strong, partly because it had
been financed by foreign interests, that it was dismantled a year later.
Gradually the powerful Chinese mandarins, or administrators, were
persuaded of the necessity of joining the railroad age, although by 1895
a mere 18 miles (30km) had been completed. In contrast, today China
has more high-speed rail lines than any other country (see pp.372–81).
For the most part, railroads played a key role in connecting the
world in the 19th and early 20th century. Thanks to their facility for
carrying both passengers and freight in large numbers, railroads
began the process of globalization that was carried forward in the late
CROSSING THE WILDERNESS

Finished in 1890, the Costa Rican railroad traversed
dense jungles, mountainous terrain, and raging rivers.
The line was built to make the export of the country’s
main export—coffee—more efficient.
RULING THE RAILROADS
During the Mexican Revolution (1910–20),
the railroads had great strategic importance,
and whoever controlled the tracks,
controlled the country.
20th and early 21st centuries by airplanes and information technology.

In the latter years of the 19th century and the start of
the 20th, railroads across the world grew on average by 10,000 miles
(16,000km) per year, making many towns and villages accessible to
the outside world for the first time.
The precise impact of the railroad varied across the world, but it was
invariably profound. Unlike roads, which need little day-to-day
attention, railroads require constant maintenance, such as patrols that
ensure the good condition of the track, and investment, such as
replacement of rails and signaling equipment. Therefore, once the
railroads arrived, they transformed the economy and, inevitably,
the character of a region. In fact, the railroads were a revolutionary
force in both predictable and unpredictable ways. The most obvious
advantage was a reduction in the cost of transportation. Consequently
local produce, whether it was crops, minerals, or manufactured goods,
could be transported more cheaply to national or global markets. The
mail-order industry grew hugely at this time, as the railroads
transported all sorts of mail-order goods to the newly connected
citizens. The railroads also stimulated international population
movement: immigrants arrived in the US by ship but then transferred
to trains to fan out across the country. Indeed, many of the tracks were
built especially to transport the influx of workers to industrial or
agricultural centers, and then to transport away the results of their
labors. Within countries too, the railroads were a catalyst for the vast
migration of people—the towns and cities became attractions for
people from the countryside who could now relocate far more easily.
British economist Alfred Marshall, writing in 1890, summed up
the influence of the railroads and the industrial boom they had
stimulated: “the dominant economic fact of our age is the development
not of the manufacturing but of the transport industries.” Another
important outcome of the railroad boom concerned the workers and
industries that supported the railroads themselves. The railroads
required a whole set of new skills to enable them to run very large
enterprises so, according to the railroad historian Terry Gourvish, “it
is not an exaggeration to say that the [rail] industry played a key role
in encouraging the growth of occupational professionalism based on
specialized work. Engineering, law, accountancy, and surveying all
received an important stimulus.” Banks developed new loan systems
in order to provide investment capital, universities stepped up to
BY 1914 THE IRON ROAD SPANNED
750,000miles (1,200,000km)
supply competent engineers and surveyors, and factories of all kinds
were built to manufacture the vast array of equipment needed,
ranging from huge steel components such as boilers and wheels for
locomotives to soft furnishings for seats and panels for train roofs.
Furthermore, the railroads affected other industries. By making
transportation cheaper, they enabled similar factories to be
concentrated in particular areas, which enabled the easy transfer of
skills and experienced workers. The railroads also stimulated small-
time capitalism, empowering many people previously restricted by
their geographical isolation. In Mexico, Teresa Miriam van Hoy, the
author of a social history of the railroads, found that the railroads
introduced local competition in more remote regions since they:
prompted the arrival of multiple suppliers, thereby breaking any

monopolies or market strangleholds, and provided smallholders
affordable access to markets beyond their local community.
In Russia, the village money-lender became redundant because the

local peasants were now able to travel to the town market by train to
sell their produce and turn it into cash. The new stations, according
to one contemporary writer:
swarmed with a mass of small traders, exporters, and commission

merchants, all buying grain, hemp, hides, lard, sheepskin, down,
and bristles—in a word everything bound for either the domestic or
the foreign market.
Many of the lines built, especially in the latter stages of the railroad
boom, were unprofitable but nevertheless had a lasting effect on the
region they served. A railroad built in Senegal in 1885 as a way of
establishing French colonial rule became a vital lifeline for the

economy as, according to one historian of the African railroads, it
allowed “the rubber, the cereals, and the peanuts from a rich
hinterland to reach the Senegal river and transported [back to] the
interior manufactures produced on the coast, such as textiles,
foodstuffs and machinery.” This story of economic opportunity was
replicated across the world.
The railroads not only revolutionized existing industries, they also
helped to create new ones: in the US, Birmingham in Alabama was a
sleepy backwater until it was transformed into an industrial center by
the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, which provided favorable freight
rates, thus enabling the iron ore deposits at nearby Red Mountain to be
exploited. The wine industry also developed, and not solely because of
the cheaper transportation. In Argentina, wine production centered on
the inland town of Mendoza and, as European immigrants arrived by
train, they modernized the small existing vineyards and then exported
their vastly increased yield via the railroads. Italian favorite Chianti
became a regular feature of French and British restaurant tables thanks
to quicker, easier access to wider markets. In other regions the taste of
TRANSPORTING WHEAT IN DAKAR

The railroads revolutionized modern commerce.
Dakar station in Senegal became a thriving center
of trade, transporting wheat and other commodities.
wine improved notably thanks to the railroads. As the rail historian

and wine writer Nicholas Faith recounts, “in pre-railway days, many
wines tasted decidedly resinous because they had been carried on
mule-back in hog skins painted with pitch.”
It was not only industries and economies that were affected by the
railroads. Even the lives of those who could not afford train fares were
improved by the railroad’s existence. In many countries, particularly
in South America, Asia, and Africa, the railroad provided the only
safe thoroughfare for pedestrians—provided they did not get in the
way of the trains, of course. The railroad lines forded rivers and
canyons and cut through mountains far more efficiently than the old
mule paths that were circuitous and badly maintained. Pipelines also
followed many railroad routes, bringing water to many towns and
villages for the first time. Even the station buildings became
ICE TRAIN
One strange industry facilitated by the railroads was
the transportation of ice in the US. Until the advent of
refrigeration, natural ice was harvested in cool northern
regions and transported via railroad to the warmer south.
prominent local landmarks. They were often the most imposing

building in the area, or even the only permanent ones, and they were
frequently used as community meeting places. Every railroad also
had a telegraph system, which allowed faster communication than
ever before. Finally, thanks to the iron road, people were free to travel
around spreading ideas, and information and newspapers could be
distributed easily. Thus, the wider dissemination of democracy, and
other political and social ideas, can be attributed—at least in part—
to the railroads.
By 1914, in many countries, the railroad network was virtually
complete. Consequently, the railroad companies were able to focus
investment on improvements, such as faster locomotives or straighter
track. Moreover, they could also devote substantial resources to
making life more comfortable for passengers, especially those at the
luxury end (see pp.170–77) of the market. These included elegant
dining cars, comfortable sleeping facilities, and luxurious waiting
rooms. At the other end of the scale, however, there were still lots of
lousy trains. A branch line shuttle might run only a couple of times a
day, and was not only slow but also subject to regular delays—the
passenger cars might be pulled next to freight cars, which could be
switched out at various stops along the way, slowing progress. The
local trains that meandered between mainline towns often used
the oldest rolling stock and made their way in a desultory fashion,
waiting patiently on sidings for express trains to pass. Timetables
were also subject to all kinds of vagaries, and were often designed for
the convenience of the railroad company rather than its passengers.
The railroads were unchallenged and the companies took full
advantage, with many making healthy profits by charging high fares
and bullying their smaller rivals to improve their own position. Worst
of all was the grime—steam locomotives were dirty machines,
spewing smoke and grit wherever they went.
So, while for a short period the railroads were king, their
dominance could not last. By 1914, the railroads had done their job as
the catalyst for the creation of the modern world. The world would
never be the same again, but nor would the railroads. By the end of the
World War I in 1918, semitrucks had become more sophisticated and
would soon offer viable alternatives to rail freight transportation.
Moreover, in the coming years the automobile would become
ubiquitous, further reducing the dominance of the passenger railroad.
WORKING IN THE DEPOT

Workers at the Longsight locomotive sheds in
Manchester, England, polish a set of locomotives
in preparation for the Whitsun holiday rush of
1936. At the time, the railroads were still the most
popular means of long-distance travel.
The Field Railroads of

World War I
A S STRATEGIC ASSETS, railroads came of age during World

War I. At the start of the war, they were used chiefly to transport
troops as close to the front as possible, after which soldiers still had a
long march to their posts, usually burdened with supplies and
equipment. However, as the two sides fought themselves to a stalemate
on the Western Front, smaller, narrow-gauge lines began to proliferate
locally, serving as connections between the main lines and the
trenches. The Germans, possibly having anticipated the stalemate,
were better prepared than the Allies. They had stockpiled huge
quantities of 2ft- (60cm-) gauge rail track, having devised the concept
during a successful but bloody campaign to colonize South West
Africa (now Namibia) in a three-year war that began in 1904. The
Feldbahn—literally “field railways”—were very flexible, and could be
laid very quickly to transport troops across the vast Namibian plains.
The Feldbahn trains carried both troops and supplies, and were
powered by little steam—or even gasoline-driven—locomotives
which, by virtue of having eight wheels, the leading and trailing pairs
of which could swivel and move sideways, could cope with short-radius
curves of track. They could also be hauled by horses, of which there
were plenty in each infantry unit. When they invaded Belgium and
France, the Germans took enough 2ft- (60cm-) gauge railroad
equipment to lay several hundred miles of track. The French, too, were
well prepared. They regarded themselves as the inventors of the mini-
railroad, having used it extensively in their invasion of Morocco in 1911.
And so, as soon as trenches began to be dug in 1914, the French brought
some 400 miles (645km) of narrow-gauge track (manufactured by
Decauville) out of storage. The standard French narrow-gauge
locomotive was the Pechot double-truck, double-boiler, eight-wheeler,
but this was soon supplemented by vast numbers of small, saddle-tank
locomotives from the great US engine manufacturer Baldwin.
The Russians—despite the many inadequacies of their army and
their preparation for war—had also anticipated the need for railroads,
having used them in their war with Japan in 1904–05. In that conflict,
they had built a 30-mile (48-km), horse-drawn, narrow-gauge line
T H E F I E L D R A I L ROA D S O F W O R L D WA R I 271
HEADING FOR THE EASTERN FRONT

German troops travel by train to the Eastern Front in 1914.
Large troop-carriers such as this took the soldiers to the
railhead, from which light railroads took them to the front.
near Mukden, which had greatly facilitated troop deployment. In

1914, the Russian army had nine railroad battallions, of which three
used narrow-gauge tracks. Once the Eastern Front, which was longer
and more fluid than the Western Front, was established, a staggering
number of lines were built. In addition to some 560 miles (900km) of
preexisting track, a further 2,500 miles (4,000km) were laid, about
half of which was used by horse-hauled trains, and most of the rest by
steam engines. The Russians had the most need for this flexible
railroad system, since they were fighting both the Germans and the
Austrians across a wide swathe of Eastern Europe. The Austrians also
had a well-developed field-railroad system, especially for their
campaign in the south against Italy. In the mountains of the
Dolomites, they added to the existing narrow-gauge lines—which
were, in fact, slightly bigger than the standard 2ft (60cm), as they used
a 2½ft- (75cm-) gauge—to keep their mountain troops supplied. As
historian John Westwood writes in Railways at War:
Anticipating war in the Dolomites, the Austrians had realized that it

would be hard to build standard-gauge lines on the Italian–Austrian
front, so a proportionately heavier task had been allocated to the narrow-
gauge lines, which were expected to be quite long. Indeed, in the long
and usually fairly static campaign against Italy from 1915 to 1917, three
substantial narrow-gauge lines were built by the Austrian army: the line
from Auer to Predazzo, for instance, was thirty miles long, and included
six tunnels and fourteen big bridges.
All of this was a far cry from the attitude of the British. British military
strategists had expected a fluid war of movement, with troops attacking
and counter-attacking each other across large areas, and so they were ill
prepared when the Western Front became entrenched. According to a
report into the British Army’s use of transportation during the war, the
authorities could not believe that the stalemate would continue:
For the first two years of the war, the British transport arrangements
were dominated by the idea that the war would soon revert to one of
movement, that it was useless to embark on any large scheme which
might be left far in the rear and become valueless before it had
materialized, and become of use.
VITAL SUPPLY LINE

Allied troops lay a light railroad on the Western Front
in 1918. The line brought supplies to the front and
enabled troops to move swiftly between the trenches.
As a result, the British Army devoted more energy on trying to

harness road transportation for the war effort than either their allies
or their enemies. It was a hopeless task—what roads there were in
rural France soon became impassable, and very often there were none
to the front line. A British official report described the situation
surprisingly eloquently:
… beyond the roads lay a nightmare quagmire of pulverized fields,

ruined ditches, and flooded shell holes, threaded by temporary
duckboard tracks and communications trenches. Through this muddy
wasteland, every single item needed by the troops—food, water,
clothing, medical supplies, tools, timber, barbed wire, mortars, machine
guns, rifles, ammunition, and yet more ammunition—had to be carried.
It was an unedifying and perilous task. Hundreds of men died as they

wandered off the duckboards in the dark and into flooded shell craters,
where they were weighed down by their huge backpacks and drowned.
Narrow-gauge railroad lines were the perfect answer to this
logistical problem. Their main advantage was that in the precarious
conditions of the front line they were more flexible and efficient than
any other form of transportation. They could be laid easily, with a
minimum of ballast and only basic ties, and were also very easy to
repair if they were shelled or damaged by the constant traffic they
had to carry. As the name “field railway” implies, they could easily be
lifted up and used elsewhere if the front line moved. The British,
seeing the French success in using light railroads, belatedly began to
develop their own from the summer of 1915.
The initial British light railroads were crude affairs that were mostly
man-hauled, although mules were occasionally used. However, the
beasts were at times reluctant to do their job, especially at night,
when most of the operations were carried out. Far more sophisticated
networks were later developed, and gradually two different types of
narrow-gauge railroad emerged. The first type mainly ran from
railheads to depots near the front line, and was normally worked by
gasoline or gasoline-electric locomotives, or even steam engines in
some cases. The second type of line—sometimes even narrower than
2-ft (60-cm) gauge, which made it seem almost like a toy train track—
was a cruder design that reached right up to the trenches. Often called
“tramways” by the British, these lines mostly used men or mules for
traction, partly because they were so close to the enemy that the noise
of the engines might attract attention and possible shellfire.
The two systems were supposed to be kept independent of each
other, since the lines nearer the front were not sufficiently robust to
carry the larger loads used by the lines from the railhead. All the lines
were necessarily short, usually between 5 and 15 miles (8 and 24km)
long, and required almost constant maintenance. Derailments were
common, particularly when tanks and artillery were being transported,
and were usually dealt with by manpower alone—a few men would be
called upon to heave the engines or cars back onto the tracks.
Trains were forced to operate under the cover of darkness, and the
only light—if one were used at all, which was impossible near the
front—was the size of a small flashlight. Yet nearly all the lines were
single-track, and there was no signaling system, so operations were
carried out on a “line of sight” system. This meant that the engineers
had to stay constantly alert, checking whether there was a train ahead
that had unexpectedly halted or broken down. A telegraph system
could be used to contact the rail traffic controller, but only if there were
problems. The unsophisticated nature of the system is best revealed by
the fact that the engineers often had to resort to finding water for their
steam locomotives from the nearest shell hole, as there was often no
other water source. One harebrained idea inspired by the lack of rolling
stock was to adapt Model T Ford automobiles. They were fixed to a rail
chassis, but proved too light for the task—they slipped on the rails due
to insufficient adhesion, so the idea was abandoned.
Given the poor state of the lines and the frequent use of men or
mules, speeds were very slow. Nevertheless, these little toy-town
railroads were infinitely better than any other form of transportation
at the front. There were, though, limitations. The maximum load of a
narrow-gauge train was 30 tons (33.5 tonnes) and consequently, when
“The Russians had perhaps the

greatest need of such lines… given
their exceptionally long front line”
JOHN WESTWOOD, RAILWAYS AT WAR
MULE TRAIN
French soldiers of the 11th Artillery
Regiment complete a 2-ft (60-cm)
narrow-gauge railroad near
Soissons, France, in 1917. Mules
stand ready to haul the cars.
supplies were transferred at the

railhead, at least ten such trains
were required to take the load
from one mainline service.
Nevertheless, the lines carried huge loads. An officer of the railroad
corps reckoned that one line could carry up to 1,200 tons (1,340 tonnes)
of materials each night, representing up to 150 trains each run by a
couple of men. Even large guns were carried, often straddling more
than one car. Toward the end of the war, a new use was found for the
lines: field guns were set up on cars, enabling the gun to be moved
after a few shots were fired, thus preventing the enemy from locating
them. And it was not only ammunition and supplies that were
carried—whenever possible, the trains carried troops to and from the
front, saving the men hours of trudging through heavy mud where, in
darkness, they risked falling into shell holes.
John Westwood concludes that “all the belligerents, even the

Germans, made greater use of the narrow-gauge railways than they
had expected.” This was partly as a result of the stalemate that lasted
for three and a half years on the Western Front, but also because of
the state of transportation technology at the time. Field trains were
an ideal solution for the logistical problems of the war’s muddy
battlefields, and they became ubiquitous. It was only when the
Germans, at last, broke through the lines in the spring of 1918 and
the Allies then counter-attacked that the lines lost their purpose.
Because of their temporary nature, very few survive today, with just a
handful of sections of line in northern France preserved to show what
Les Petits Trains, as the French call them, achieved in that terrible conflict.
American
Luxury WM NO.203 (1914)
A luxury Pullman sleeping
Passenger services began in the US in the 1830s, car used by the president
of the Western Maryland
and by 1869 the first journeys across the whole Railroad, No.203 had a steel
continent were made. Long-distance travel led frame with wood-effect
exterior styling. It had an
to innovations such as Pullman sleeper cars observation lounge, a dining
(see pp.170–77) and observatory cars. area, and four sleeping berths.
RDG NO.800 (1931) routes. An EMU train consists of self-

No.800 was the first electric multiple unit propelled cars—No.800 was powered by
(EMU) to be put into service by the Reading 11,000 volts of AC current, collected via
Company on its Pennsylvania commuter a pantograph from overhead lines.
66-seat Smooth-sided design for
coach improved aerodynamics
NW NO.512:
POWHATAN
ARROW (1949)
No.512 was a 51-class
lightweight steel car
built by Pullman. It was
one of the units that
made up the Powhatan
Arrow, Norfolk and
Western’s streamliner
passenger service that
served a 676-mile
(1,088km) route from
Norfolk, Virginia,
to Cincinnati, Ohio. Twin-axle truck Imitation gold trim
applied in early 1950s
NW NO.1489 SCIOTO COUNTY (1949) with 10 roomettes and six double-bedrooms.

Named after a county in Ohio, Scioto County After several refits and spells as a commuter
was built by Budd Company for the Norfolk car and snack-bar coach, it was retired in 2001
and Western Railroad as a sleeper equipped before returning to service on a heritage line.
A M ER ICAN LU XURY 277
BOMX NO.130: HERSHEY WARE (1949) Company in Philadelphia. Originally used

Named Hershey Ware by the Baltimore and as a 21-berth sleeper by the Pennsylvania
Ohio Railroad Museum after a restoration, Railroad, it was refitted as a commuter car
No.130 was a passenger car built by Budd in 1963 for the New York World’s Fair.
RDG OBSERVATION NO.1 (1937) linked Jersey City and Philadelphia. It

This Budd Company observation car was boasted ultra-modern features including
the rear car in Reading Company’s flagship air conditioning, sound proofing, and
Crusader train, a streamliner service that movable arm-chair seating.
Original Tuscan red Hauled by NW J-class
and black livery locomotive (see p.293)
Powhatan Arrow comprised seating,

dining, and lounge-observation
cars
BALTIMORE AND OHIO NO.1961 (1956) 24 regular passengers, while the eight-table
A Budd Company self-propelled dining car, dining area was served by a full kitchen. It
No.1961 was powered by two underfloor was converted for conventional passenger
diesel engines. The rear of the car could seat duties in 1963 before being retired in 1984.
Wartime Railroad
Disasters
I T IS NO COINCIDENCE THAT A HIGH PROPORTION of the
world’s most serious rail disasters occurred during wartime. Britain,
France, and Italy all experienced their worst accidents in terms of
fatalities during the two world wars—although interestingly, none
involved enemy attack—and the highest death toll of any rail accident
in Europe occurred in Romania during World War I. Each of these
disasters was wholly or partly caused by the overuse of the railroads due
to the imperatives of war, combined with a general decrease in safety.
Wartime censorship meant that information on these incidents was
withheld at the time, and even today the details are sketchy.
Consequently, many wartime disasters have been largely forgotten.
The first of this series of tragedies occurred during World War I at
Quintinshill, near the English–Scottish border. In terms of loss of
life, it remains by far the worst train accident in British history, and
WA RT I M E R A I L ROA D D I S A S T E R S 279
while the direct cause was a series of mistakes by rail traffic controllers,
a contributory factor was the enormous pressure placed on the
railroads due to the war. The Caledonian main line approaching
Carlisle from the north—one of two main rail connections between
England and Scotland—was one of the busiest stretches of railroad in
the country during the conflict. A huge number of “Jellicoe
specials”—freight trains carrying coal for Admiral Jellicoe’s Royal
Navy—used the line when returning empty from Scotland to
England, as well as local and express passenger services.
On the morning of May 22, 1915, the two overnight passenger
sleeper expresses from London were late, as often happened in the
war due to the intensity of traffic. The small interlocking towers at
Quintinshill, 10 miles (16km) north of Carlisle, controlled a section
of the main line as well as the sidings on either side of the track,
which were used to temporarily accommodate slower freight
trains or local services so that faster trains could pass. That
morning, the sidings were full of empty Jellicoe specials waiting to
return to the mines to collect more coal. Consequently, the
HEADING FOR THE FRONT

During World War I, trains were used on an
unprecedented scale to transport troops and
equipment to the battlefield. Here, French
soldiers depart for the Western Front in 1914.
TRIPLE COLLISION AT QUINTINSHILL

An express engine lies in the wreckage
of an earlier collision between a local
service and a troop train at Quintinshill,
England, in 1915. A freight wagon (left) has
been thrown off the track.
towermen decided to direct a slow local train off the northbound

main line and onto the southbound track, in order to allow the
passenger sleeper express trains to pass through.
Disastrously, the rail traffic controllers then forgot that the
southbound track was occupied, even though the parked train was
within sight of the interlocking tower. It was just after 6am, and the
signalmen were about to change shifts—George Meakin giving way
to James Tinsley. However, against the rules, the two men had agreed
to swap shifts a little later than scheduled to give Tinsley time to take
the local train to the interlocking tower. Tinsley, therefore, was busy
filling in the register—to cover the fact that he had not started work
until after 6am—and chatting about the war when he gave the signal
“line clear” to a southbound troop train. He had forgotten that
the local train—on which he had just traveled—was sitting on the
southbound main line.
The troop train was carrying 485 soldiers of the Royal Scots, who
had just finished their training and were bound for the fighting at
Gallipoli in Turkey. The engineer had no chance of stopping when the
troop train came down a slight grade at more than 70mph (110kph).
The train smashed into the local service head on, with such force that
the troop train’s cars were telescoped into a length of just 210ft (64m)—
a third of their original size. To compound the disaster, the old rolling
stock that had been commandeered for the troop train was made of
wood and acted like a tinderbox—a fire quickly broke out and was
fueled by kerosene lanterns and coal from the engines. But worse
was yet to come. The northbound express for which the local service
had been waiting was unable to stop, and plowed into the wreckage
from the two earlier trains, which had been strewn across the
northbound main line. The death toll from the incident was 227—by
far the worst British rail disaster, and nearly twice the total of the
second-worst, at Harrow in 1952—but fatalities on the two passenger
trains were light, although the figures may have been massaged by the
wartime official sources. The two towermen were jailed for
manslaughter, with relatively light sentences given the scale of the
disaster—Tinsley received three years and Meakin half that.
The Romanian accident, which happened on January 13, 1917, is
shrouded in mystery because of its location and the tight censorship of
the Romanian and Russian authorities. It bore several similarities with
a later disaster at St-Michel-de-Maurienne in France (see p.285)—a
TRAGEDY AT CIUREA, 1917

It is thought that the devastating crash was partly
caused by soldiers in the overcrowded cars
accidentally damaging brake pipes.
heavily overloaded troop train ran out of control, leading to a fire that
killed many of the victims. The accident occurred at Ciurea—in a
remote eastern part of Romania near what is now the border with
Belarus—and involved Russian troops and Romanian civilians fleeing
a brutal German advance. Romania had entered the war late on the
side of the Allies, and after early success was soon overrun by German
forces. To escape the enemy, a huge train of 26 cars packed with
wounded Russian soldiers, as well as refugees, left the small town of
Bârnova bound for Ciurea. A survivor, Nicolae Dunanreanu, wrote
of the scramble to get on the train:
… everywhere, people—and particularly soldiers—clambered on to

the roofs, steps, and buffers, gripping each other in mad desperation.
There was not even the smallest corner free, one could not even get both
feet on a step, nor a buffer, and these desperate people seeking a relative
or fleeing from the enemy who occupied more than half the country
could not guess that a greater disaster awaited them.
The two stations were separated by an incline that averaged 1 in 40,

but with sections as steep as 1 in 15. It became apparent shortly after
starting the descent that the train’s brakes were not working
properly—it later emerged that passengers had broken the connecting
DISASTER IN THE ALPS

The remains of a 19-car train carrying over 900
French troops lie at the bottom of a gorge near the
village of St-Michel-de-Maurienne, France.
pipes between cars by stepping on them as they crowded onto the

train. The two locomotives did not have sufficient braking power
between them, and consequently the train hurtled ever faster down
the slope. Despite the efforts of the train crew—who took the
emergency measure of putting the locomotive in reverse, and tried to
sand the track to increase adhesion—the cars were derailed as they
entered Ciurea station, causing destruction on a vast scale. The final
death toll is thought to have exceeded 1,000, although wartime
secrecy—and the remoteness of the area in which the accident
occurred—meant that no precise figure has ever been ascertained.
There is no doubt, however, that it was by far the worst railroad
accident ever to occur in Europe as a whole.
Later that year, an accident occurred in France that would prove
to be the worst railroad disaster within Western Europe. It was
caused by elementary mistakes made by railroad officials working
under the strain of wartime loads and—crucially—under the
orders of the military, who ignored the officials’ warnings. A very
long train of 19 cars was being hauled over the Alps on the night of
December 12, 1917, carrying more than 900 French troops on their
way home for Christmas. The men had fought in Italy and were
anxious to get home quickly for their leave. Having traveled

through the Mont Cenis tunnel, a crucial link between the two
countries, the train waited at Modane on the French side for more
than an hour as other services were allowed onto the overburdened
line. The train was also being delayed because of the lack of a
second locomotive, which was vital not just to provide extra power
up the grades, but to assist with braking on the descents. Only
three cars had air brakes, while the rest had either crude, hand-
operated brakes, or none at all.
As the delay lengthened and the poilus (French infantry) became
rowdy, the train’s engineer, Girard, came under pressure to proceed
down the incline. He refused unless a second locomotive could be
found, but the only one available had been allocated to an
ammunition train. Girard was overruled by the local military
traffic officer, Capitaine Fayolle, who told the engineer that he
would be thrown into the fortresse (prison) if he refused. It was a
classic case of military personnel failing to understand the
limitations and safety requirements of the railroad. As a result,
the inevitable happened. With such a huge load and inadequate
braking power, the train began to speed out of control. When the
brakes were applied, the friction was so great that they heated up
and caught fire. This sowed panic among the passengers, some of
whom jumped off the speeding train. Traveling at around three
times the speed limit of 25mph (40kph), the train jumped the rails
at a bend near the village of St-Michel-de-Maurienne. Several cars
plunged into the gorge below, while others burst into flames.
Relieved of its burden, the locomotive stayed on the tracks—and
Girard, who was not initially aware of having lost his load, survived.
The death toll was initially announced as 424, but is now
thought to have been 457. Other
estimates put the number as high NUMBER OF UNIDENTIFIED
as 675, since many of the dead DEAD AT ST-MICHEL-DE-
were incinerated in the ensuing MAURIENNE
fire—which took a day to burn
135
out—and several survivors later
succumbed to their injuries in
the hospital. But it could have
been even worse. Only the
quick actions of a stationmaster
prevented a train carrying Scottish troops toward Italy from crashing

into the debris. Reflecting the sensitivity of such wartime incidents,
it was not until 79 years after the accident, on December 12, 1996, that
a memorial to the dead was opened at the site of the disaster.
Spain experienced its worst train disaster during World War II,
despite the country’s neutrality. The accident occurred on January 3,
1944, near the village of Torre del Bierzo in the León province, when
three trains collided inside a tunnel. Like the Romanian and French
disasters, the cause was a runaway train speeding down an incline,
resulting in a fire that claimed most of the lives. The overnight
Galician mail express failed to make a scheduled stop at Albares due
to a broken braking system. The stationmaster at Torre del Bierzo,
the next station down the line, ordered railroad ties to be placed on
the line to slow the train down, but his efforts were to no avail. The
train ran toward a tunnel where it hit another train that was in
the process of being moved out of its path. Unaware of the crash, a
coal train with 27 loaded cars then approached the tunnel from the
opposite direction and plowed into the wreckage. The ensuing fire
burned for two days, preventing the injured from being rescued and
making identification of most of the victims impossible.
Strict censorship under the regime of General Franco meant that
the accident received very little publicity at the time, and the official
RENFE (the Spanish rail company) file on the accident was lost. There
were many illegal travelers on the train heading for a post-Christmas
market, and although the official death toll was 78, research has
shown that the real figure was closer to 500.
World War II was also the backdrop for Italy’s most serious accident,
which brought a death toll far in excess of any other rail disaster in the
country. Again, wartime conditions were the underlying cause.
The accident happened at Balvano, a small town inland from Salerno
on the Bay of Naples. The area was under occupation by Anglo-
American forces that had battled their way up from Sicily, and food
and other basics were in short supply. Many townspeople jumped on
freight trains illegally to travel into the countryside to obtain supplies,
either for themselves or to sell on the black market. One such steam-
hauled train left Salerno on the wet and cold evening of March 2, 1944,
heading for farms inland in the Apennine mountains. Hundreds of
people jumped onto the flat cars at each successive stop, and sheltered
under tarpaulins and whatever else they could find. The train stopped
in a tunnel near Balvano, where it was forced to wait nearly 40 minutes

for another service to come down the hill. This was to prove fatal for
hundreds of the 650 or so illegal travelers. Wartime shortages meant
that the only fuel available for the engine was poor-quality coal, which
emitted a high level of carbon monoxide. The incline in the tunnel
caused the fumes to spread downward; the death toll was enormous,
and has been estimated at between 450 and 500. Those who survived
had mostly been in the rear cars, which were not in the tunnel when
the train stopped. The alert was sounded by a brakeman, who ran
back to the nearest station shouting “they are all dead,” before
collapsing from the effects of the fumes. A colonel in the US Army
who helped in the aftermath of the disaster later wrote: “The faces of
the victims were mostly peaceful. They showed no sign of suffering.
Many were sitting upright or in positions they might assume while
sleeping normally.” Death had come quietly and quickly.
Fortunately, the scale of these disasters is unlikely to be repeated in

the modern era. Train technology—such as advances in braking
efficiency—and the enforcement of regulations mean that train
travel is far safer now. Generally, trains are not as overcrowded as in
previous years, and fire is rarely a hazard given that steam locomotives
are no longer used. Moreover, cars are no longer made of wood, and
are designed and built to be strong enough to withstand the forces of
crashes—so even when accidents do occur, the survival rate tends to
be higher. Nevertheless, with high-speed trains traveling at nearly
200mph (320kph) every day in Europe, the possibility of a tragedy on
a large scale remains—as evidenced by the July 2013 accident at
Santiago de Compostela in Spain, in which 79 people lost their lives.
The Hejaz Railway
R AILROADS CAME LATE TO THE MIDDLE EAST. By the end

of the 19th century, there were just a few lines operating in the
crumbling Ottoman Empire. Their military and political value had
been recognized by far-sighted rulers, however, and this was the
catalyst for the construction of a railway deep in the desert of
the Hejaz region of what is now Saudi Arabia—a line that would be
made famous in the West by Lawrence of Arabia.
As with many pioneering railroads, the idea for its construction was
mooted long before work commenced. German-American civil
engineer Charles Zimpel proposed a line from Damascus to the Red
Sea in 1864, and numerous similar lines were also suggested in the last
third of the 19th century. However, it was the proposal in 1897 by
Muhammad Insha Allah, an Indian Muslim teacher and journalist,
that attracted the attention of the Sultan of the Empire, Abdulhamid II.
Abdulhamid was the conservative leader of the failing Ottoman
Empire, ruling from Constantinople (now Istanbul). Soon after his
accession, in 1876, the empire had lost two fifths of its territory, including
European holdings such as Bulgaria and Greece, effectively ending
Ottoman influence in Europe. Following this loss, the Sultan resolved to
strengthen his hold over the remaining
Asian part of the empire, which included the
Arabian Peninsula. The political influence of
the empire was waning, but Abdulhamid
hoped to reinforce its religious significance.
The proposed railroad offered an opportunity
to consolidate his own position as Caliph,
leader of all Muslims: the new line would
ensure a fast, cheap way for pilgrims to travel
to Mecca. Funding for the railroad was
obtained largely through Muslim support
due to its religious significance.
T. E. LAWRENCE
British Army officer T. E. Lawrence became
familiar with the Middle East during his career
as an archaeologist. He led the Arab Revolt in
1916–18, which all but destroyed the Hejaz Railway.
T H E H E J A Z R A I LWAY 289
T H E H EJA Z R A I LWAY
IRAN
SYRIA
DAMASCUS
MEDITERRANEAN Amman
IRAQ
SEA ISRAEL
JORDAN
Maan
Tabuk
EGYPT
Mada’in Salih
SAUDI
ARABIA
Major city
City/town
MEDINA
RE
Main line
DS
National
EA
boundary
Work started on the 4ft 1111⁄16in- (1,500mm-) gauge railroad in late 1900
under the auspices of a German engineer, Heinrich Meissner, who
drove the project for eight years. Initially, it was beset by problems and
progress was slow. The original surveys were unsatisfactory and had to
be redone. The laborers, mostly conscripts, worked in appalling
conditions—poor treatment that resulted in a mutiny. Recognizing
the lack of progress, the Sultan took a softer approach and Meissner
began to impose a more acceptable regime, attracting experienced
foreign workers from Belgium, France, and Germany in particular. In
the later stages, however, Christians were not allowed to work on the
southern end of the railroad because of religious sensibilities, but by
then trained Turkish Muslim engineers were available.
Three teams were created: for reconnoitring, surveying, and
construction. The reconnoitring team, which made a preliminary
assessment of the route, experienced the most difficulties: they went
into the desert mounted on camels and horses, venturing into
unmapped land and facing hostile tribes, and so were accompanied by
a cavalry detachment. The second team, the surveyors, used the maps
created by the reconnoitring group to set out a detailed route for the
“The engineers had to build a

railway through this precipice,
the ‘belly of the demon’”
DOMINICAN FRIAR, TRAVELING ON THE HEJAZ RAILWAY IN 1909
construction gangs to follow. Construction was carried out by a special

railroad battalion with four divisions, each one focused on a particular
task: the advance party marked out a trace for the track and prepared
the earthworks; the second division put down the ballast; the ties
were laid by the third group; and the rails were laid in by the fourth.
Such a disciplined and organized process allowed rapid progress
despite the difficulties of the terrain and other obstacles. It was not just
the heat, which could reach 122ºF (50°C) in the middle of the day
(matched by cold nights in winter), or the remoteness of the land, but
the sheer scale of the operation: 1,000 miles (1,600km) of track had to be
laid to reach the original target—the holy city of Islam, Mecca.
The scarcity of water was the worst problem faced by the builders of
the line, which followed old pilgrimage trails. These had occasional
wells and pools where rainwater collected, but, for the most part, the
vital liquid was stored in cisterns installed along the line and replenished
by tank cars transported down the newly constructed railroad. While
lack of water was a perennial problem, ironically flash floods washed
away parts of the line in the rainy season. To limit such damage, many
sections of the railroad were built on embankments.
Sand drifts across the tracks were another obstacle. When
construction reached the desert of the southern Arabian Peninsula,
there was little vegetation to prevent sand being driven onto the railroad
by the wind, and it was therefore necessary for the line to be protected
by sandbanks made of stone and clay.
The greatest irony was the shortage of fuel. Coal mined in Turkey
proved too smoky, and so fuel was imported from Wales at great
expense, then mixed with the local coal. Since steam locomotives can
run on oil, the solution was in fact near at hand. As James Nicholson,
author of the line’s history, puts it, “In view of the fact that the Ottomans
at that time also controlled the Eastern Province of what is now Saudi
Arabia, they would have been surprised to discover just how easily all
their fuel needs could have been met by what lay beneath the sands.”
The workers, who numbered 7,000 at the peak of construction, lived

in small tents that had to be moved forward constantly as the line
progressed. Laborers lived on a diet of bread, cookies, or rice with only
occasional additions of meat. There were no fresh vegetables or fruit,
so vitamin deficiency diseases, such as scurvy, were common. Cholera
outbreaks were not unusual and caused widespread panic, with
workers fleeing the camps, which delayed progress.
As the railroad approached Medina, plans were still in place to
extend the line to Mecca. However, opposition to what was called
“the iron donkey” was strong among the local tribes, who did not
want to see it reach Mecca. Their objections were not solely
stimulated by religion: many local tribesmen made their living
from operating the camel caravans for pilgrims. This resistance
culminated in a revolt in January 1908, when Abdulhamid’s political
position was already weak. As a result the planned extension of the
line to Mecca was scrapped. Instead, Medina, the second holiest city
in Islam, became its terminus.
The last stretch of track from Al-‘Ula to Medina was the most
difficult to lay in terms of the terrain, but work speeded up with the
arrival of extra workers. The rapid conclusion of the project was partly
FIRST TRAIN FOR MEDINA

A crowd gathers to send off the first train carrying
passengers on the Hejaz Railway from Damascus to
Medina on the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1909.
to ensure that the line’s opening coincided with the anniversary of the
Sultan’s accession to the throne on September 1, 1908. The deadline was
met and there were celebrations in Medina, but the Sultan did not
attend: his popularity was by this time so low that he feared his absence
from Constantinople might result in a coup.
Despite the Sultan’s mounting political difficulties, the Hejaz Railway
enjoyed eight years of normal operations, carrying many thousands of
pilgrims to and from Medina. However, the line’s fate was always bound
up with regional and, indeed, global political considerations, and World
War I was to turn the railroad into a battleground.
The Ottoman Empire entered the war in 1914 on the side of the
Germans. The British were keen to ensure that the Turks did not
launch attacks elsewhere, and so encouraged the Arabs in the Peninsula
to rise against them. The Hejaz Railway was an obvious target and in
June 1916 the tribes began attacking the line. However, the Arabs
needed explosives and better equipment, and that is where T.E.
Lawrence—Lawrence of Arabia—entered the fray. Despite ranking
only as captain and holding a desk job in Cairo, he persuaded his
superiors to send him across the Suez Canal to support the uprising led
by Prince Feisal, one of the sons of Sharif Hussein, the Emir of Mecca.
Feisal’s irregular troops had already launched several successful
attacks on the line when Lawrence joined them in early 1917. He led
several more raids, both attacking trains and sabotaging the track. The
strategy, an early use of guerrilla tactics, was not to close the line, but
rather to tie up Turkish troops in its protection. Very few of Lawrence’s
troops were killed in these raids—depicted so powerfully in the David
Lean film Lawrence of Arabia—but thousands of Turks lost their lives and
the strategy proved successful. Gradually, Lawrence and Feisal worked
their way up the line and gained control of the railroad as the Turks fled
north. This meant that Medina, and the Turkish troops defending it,
were cut off from the rest of the Ottoman forces.
Lawrence and Feisal eventually joined up with the British forces
under General Allenby for a final assault on Damascus. Feisal’s army,
which included Lawrence, was given the task of cutting off the
junction that led from the Syrian city of Daraa to the Mediterranean
port of Haifa (now in Israel). The last, decisive attack on the Turks in
Damascus in September 1918 was successful, but Medina was still
occupied by Turkish troops who did not surrender until January 1919,
arguably the last action of World War I.
LAWRENCE OF ARABIA AND THE ARAB REVOLT

Arab soldiers attacking a train on the Hejaz Railway in
the film Lawrence of Arabia. Despite the notoriety he gained
for his exploits, Lawrence insisted it was the Arabs’ war.
As Lawrence recognized in his account of the battle over the Hejaz,

Seven Pillars of Wisdom, the Turks were courageous and became adept at
repairing the line. Following the war, and the division of the Ottoman
Empire into states under British or French control, the operation of
the line was split between the two European colonial powers. The
Allies and the retreating Turks had destroyed much of the southern
section of the railroad, but several parts remained open for traffic.
The best-used sections were freight services on the branch line
between Damascus and Haifa and, until the start of the Syrian conflict,
there was a passenger train from Damascus to Amman (the capital of
Jordan). Saudi Arabia is also building a new network of lines to cater
for the Haj and its freight needs, and there has even been talk of
reopening the entire Hejaz Railway, but this may prove too expensive,
and unnecessary now that many pilgrims travel to Mecca by air.
The eight years from 1908 to 1916 were to be the only time at which
regular services operated along the whole railroad. Even then, conditions
were uncomfortable for the pilgrims, as services were overcrowded and
slow. The journey, however, which took just over a day, was a vast
improvement on the old 40-day overland trip. It proved a brief heyday
for one of the world’s most ambitious railroad construction projects.
Streamliners
In the age of aviation and the motor car, locomotive designers sought
to lure passengers back to the railroads with a new generation of
high-speed, modern designs. First applied to the marquee passenger
expresses of the US, the term “streamliner” came to describe the steam,
diesel, and electric locomotives that were sculpted for speed.
Aerodynamic
styling designed
by famous steam
locomotive
engineer Sir
Nigel Gresley
LNER NO.4468
MALLARD (1937)
A Class A4 Pacific built by
London and North Eastern
Railways, No.4468 Mallard
holds the world record for
the fastest speed achieved
under steam traction.
On July 3, 1938, it hauled
seven coaches at a speed
of 125mph (202kph),
thanks to its aerodynamic
bodywork and highly
efficient steam circuit.
Streamlined valances
hide running gear
ETAT ZZY 24408 (1934)
Built by French car maker
Bugatti, ZZY 24408 was one
of several “Autorail Rapide”
express rail-cars used in
France. Despite a number of
innovations—such as drum
brakes, four gasoline engines,
oil-damped suspension,
and a central cupola for the
engineer—the model was
withdrawn in 1953 due to
the expense of its fuel.
PPL NO.4094D (1939)

No.4094D was a “fireless” switcher
run by Pennsylvania Power and Light
Co. Instead of a firebox and boiler, it
had a reservoir charged with steam
from an external source. It was used
in settings where pollution or fire
risk had to be eliminated, such as gas
power stations or chemical works.
STREAMLINERS 295
NW NO.611 (1950)
With rigid wheelsets and
lightweight driving rods to enable
its relatively small driving wheels
to reach 110mph (177kph), No.611
is a Norfolk and Western J-class
steam engine. NW’s flagship
model, the class hauled both
passenger and freight trains.
“Kylchap”
smokestack contains
four nozzles for
improved engine
efficiency
6ft 8in- (2m-) diameter

driving wheels
DB CLASS 602 (1970)
Originally built in 1957 as a diesel-
hydraulic VT 11.5 passenger train for
the Trans-Europ Express, Deutsche
Bundesbahn’s Class 602 was a 1970
refit with 2,200-hp (1,600-kw) gas
turbine engines. The new class was
capable of 124mph (200kph), but high
fuel costs led to its withdrawal in 1979.
HOKURIKU SHINKANSEN
E7 (2013)
This model of Japanese Shinkansen
bullet train (see pp.364–71) was
launched in November 2013 in
Rifu, Miyagi, Japan. These trains
operate at speeds of around
200mph (320kph).
Australia’s Gauge Bungle
T HE CHECKERED HISTORY of railroads in Australia is in many

respects a case study of how not to manage a railroad network. In
contrast to many other countries, where the railroads acted as a great
unifier and were built in a standardized way that assisted their
expansion, the state-run railroad companies in Australia seemed to
take an almost perverse enjoyment in making life difficult for freight
carriers and people wishing to travel long distances across this vast
country. In no other country in the world has the issue of the gauge of
the various lines so dominated the history of the railroads and resulted
in so much damage to the development of the rail network.
Given that in its infancy Australia was the destination of so many
British convicts, deported there in the 19th century, it is perhaps
unsurprising that its first railroad line was operated by convict-power.
In 1836, an 5-mile (8-km) narrow-gauge line was built across the Tasman
Peninsula in Tasmania to the Port Arthur prison settlement, enabling
visitors to avoid a stormy sea passage. Convicts who had first been
conscripted into building the track were then required to haul the little
open-top cars that plied the line, enjoying a slight rest on downward
sections, where they could hop aboard for the ride. Passengers paid the
not-inconsiderable fare of one shilling. However, this human-powered
arrangement could hardly be called a railroad, and it was not until 1854
that the first proper lines were opened.
Constructed almost simultaneously, the nation’s first lines set a
pattern of disconnected services that would plague Australia’s railroad
system throughout its history. In South Australia, an 7-mile (11-km)
horse-drawn line opened in May 1854 between Goolwa on the lower
Murray River and Port Elliot, and four months
THE NUMBER OF later the nation’s first steam service began in
DIFFERENT RAIL Victoria, between Melbourne’s Flinders Street
GAUGES USED IN Station and Sandbridge (now Port Melbourne).
AUSTRALIA Both these lines used the 5ft 3in (1,600mm)
broad gauge, as used in Ireland, but a line
22 opened in New South Wales the following year

using the 4ft 8½in (1,435mm) standard gauge.
This was the start of Australia’s failure to
coordinate its railroads, resulting in—
A U S T R A L I A’ S G A U G E B U N G L E 297
AUSTR A L I A’ S M A I N L I N E S
DARWIN Major city

City/town
Main line
CAIRNS
NORTHERN
TERRITORIES Townsville
AUSTRALIA Alice Springs

QUEENSLAND Rockhampton
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA SOUTHERN
AUSTRALIA Jennings BRISBANE
Kalgoorlie NEW SOUTH
Terowie WALES
Port Augusta Broken
PERTH ADELAIDE Hill SYDNEY
Port Elliot Albury CANBERRA
Goolwa
VICTORIA AUSTRALIAN
CAPITAL TERRITORY
MELBOURNE
according to rail enthusiast and former deputy prime minister Tim

Fischer—a veritable confetti of gauges, with 22 different track widths
being used across the nation. Following the opening of these first lines,
early attempts were made to coordinate the use of gauges. However,
these only added to the confusion. Amazingly, the New South Wales
line was first converted to the broader width and then back to standard
gauge in the belief that this would match neighboring Victoria. However,
Victoria and South Australia claimed that, in fact, changing to standard
gauge would be too expensive, as they had bought rolling stock in broad
gauge. And thus, as a historian of rail transportation in Australia put it,
“the glorious bungle began.” To exacerbate matters, the three remaining
states, Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia—all of which
were separate British colonies until the creation of the Commonwealth
of Australia in 1901—each chose the 3ft 6in (1,067mm) narrow gauge,
enabling cheaper construction but adding to the gauge confusion.
In the last quarter of the 19th century, the railroads began to expand
rapidly, mostly due to the demand for freight conveyance. The overseas
export market was the catalyst, with the consequent need to carry ore
from the country’s mines, and agricultural produce from the vast
BRIDGE ON THE GHAN RAILWAY

The Ghan transcontinental railway runs from Darwin
to Adelaide—a 1,851-mile (2,979-km) journey that has
only been possible since 2004, when the entire track
was finally converted from narrow to standard gauge.
interior, to Australia’s ports. But any attempt to create a national

network—or even merely to create links across state borders—was
hampered by the gauge issue. In effect, the six Australian states each
built a railroad network resembling that of an individual country, with
very few connections and little cross-border traffic.
For example, when the rails of New South Wales and Victoria met at
Albury in 1883, in theory linking Melbourne and Sydney, the different
gauges meant that passengers had to change trains, and goods had to be
transhipped for onward dispatch. The same happened between Sydney
and Brisbane, when the lines between Queensland and New South
Wales met at Jennings in the same year. Even at borders between states
where there was no break of gauge, “huge time-wasting barriers were
created to stop any kind of seamlessness,” according to Fischer. The
only two adjoining states with the same gauge—Victoria and South
Australia—changed locomotives at the border because each state had
bought different types of engine that could not fit onto the other state’s
network. This lack of standardization proved costly, as it hindered
savings from bulk-buying of equipment. Coastal shipping took up the

slack, handling most passenger and freight traffic between states, even
though maritime transport was a slower method of travel.
The question of whether all the railroads should adopt standard
gauge had been debated as early as 1890. However, it was not until
Australia became an autonomous nation in 1901 that the gauge issue
was addressed, by the new federal government. Before then, the various
colonial administrations had decided that the cost of standardization
would be too high, making differences in gauges—known as “breaks of
gauge”—inevitable. In 1917, the government built the standard-gauge
Trans-Australian Railway between Kalgoorlie in Western Australia and
Port Augusta in South Australia, but several breaks of gauge were
required to reach connecting stations—at Kalgoorlie to reach Perth,
and at Port Augusta and Terowie to reach Adelaide. Similarly, when the
line between Sydney and South Australia was later completed in 1927,
breaks of gauge were required at Broken Hill, where the line switched to
narrow gauge, and at Terowie to reach Adelaide.
The nationwide rail system had expanded to some 26,000 miles
(40,000km)—relatively small for so large a country—by the end of
World War I. As in other countries, railroads lost market share between
the wars as they faced growing competition from road transportation,
even in the key freight market. Starved of much-needed investment
from their state owners, the railroads then had to cope with the added
loads of wartime, following Australia’s
entry into World War II in September THE DISTANCE THE
1939. The railroads were used intensively TRANS-AUSTRALIAN
for the war effort, carrying both troops RAILWAY RUNS
and freight, but afterward a pattern of WITHOUT A BEND
neglect began to threaten their very
existence. Facing even greater post-war
competition from road transportation,
and with the emerging airlines picking
297 MILES
off long-distance passengers, there was
talk of abandoning the system. In the (487 KM)
words of one historian of the Australian
railroads: “they might have succumbed THE LONGEST
to the direst predictions of the critics
and become nothing more than streaks
STRAIGHT TRACK
of rust across the countryside…” IN THE WORLD
RAILWAY ACROSS THE NULLARBOR

The Trans-Australian railroad crosses the
Nullarbor Plain, named for its lack of trees.
This transcontinental Sydney–Perth line
opened in 1970, after the gauges in South
and Western Australia were standardized.
However, the attempt to develop a standard-gauge network would

continue for much of the 20th century. The first concerted effort had
been made in 1932, with the completion of a standard-gauge railroad
between Sydney and Brisbane, but it was not until after World War II
that real efforts were made to create a network across the whole country
using the same gauge. In the 1950s, a plan was drawn up to create a
national network of standard-gauge lines, but progress was slow
because of the cost. It was not until 1962 that the Sydney–Melbourne
route, the busiest long-distance line in the country, was standardized,
and three years later the Sydney–Perth route followed suit. The
Melbourne–Adelaide railway was converted to standard gauge in 1995,
and the Adelaide–Darwin line followed nine years later.
There is no doubt that the gauge “bungle” cost Australia and its
railroads dearly. Changing trains is both unpopular with passengers
and costly for freight. The Australian experience is in great contrast to
that other vast country developed thanks to immigration—the US,
where the railroads were the principal catalyst for growth. But thanks
to the Australian government’s program of standardization and
modernization—including the introduction of diesel trains and the
closure of heavily loss-making branch lines—the railroads survived
and, in places, even began to flourish, although they have never been as
vital a part of the economy as in many other countries.
The experience of Australia is in sharp contrast to its neighboring

country and fellow ex-British colony, New Zealand. Although the origin
of the railroads was similar—the first lines were built by provincial
governments, with the first one opening in 1863—
central government took over in 1876. From then
on, New Zealand’s railroad system was developed
in an integrated manner, using just one gauge.
The government of the dominion of New
Zealand deliberately expanded the railroads to
provide a unifying force for the sparsely
populated nation, which consists of two main
THE JOY OF TRAINS

The New Zealand government promoted rail
travel not only for industrial purposes but for
leisure activities too.
NEW ZEALAND RAILWAY REFRESHMENT ROOM

The refreshment rooms at provincial New Zealand Railway
stations often became the social heart of the townships
they served, offering hearty meals at decent prices.
islands. As the author of a history of New Zealand railroads, Neill

Atkinson, put it: “since the late nineteenth century, the state used its
expanding rail network to promote not just the development of
agriculture, industry, forestry, and mining, but to further policies in
areas as diverse as education, town planning, and recreation. Trains
ferried school children to the classroom, suburban workers to
factories and offices, sportspeople to competitions, and thousands of
picnickers and punters to beaches, parks, and racetracks.”
Railroad stations soon became the hub of their communities. Each
station’s “Railway Refreshment Rooms,” sold appetizing, cheap food
and beverages served “in the legendarily thick New Zealand Railway”
cups, bowls, and plates. The railroads became an integral part of New
Zealand’s economy and culture, and, by the early 1920s, more than 28
million journeys were made annually by rail in a country of a little
more than one million people. The railroads were, in the words of a
1938 advertisement for New Zealand Railways, “the industry that made
New Zealand—the people’s railways for the people’s profit.” The
contrast with Australia could not have been greater.
High-speed
Steam Trains
T HE CRUDE “TEA KETTLES ON WHEELS” built by pioneers,

such as George Stephenson in Britain and Peter Cooper in the US
were transformed over the first 100 years of the railroad as steam-
train technology leapt forward. The period between the world wars,
in particular, saw great engineers of the time turn steam locomotives
into sophisticated powerhouses.
An interesting analysis undertaken in 1889 by early “train
enthusiasts” E. Foxwell and T. C. Farrer provides a comparative
analysis of the speeds of trains across the world. In general, the
authors were greatly disappointed by the slowness of most trains. For
their research, the pair included only “expresses,” which they defined
as averaging at least 29mph (46kph)—hardly speedy travel, but even
so, not many qualifying trains were found. There were no such
services in several major railroad nations—including India and the
whole of South America—and only a few in Australia. Foxwell and
Farrer found that the countries with the highest proportion of fast
services were France and the Netherlands, which interestingly used
mainly British locomotives. In Germany, an average of 35mph
(56kph) was rare, while in Italy there was only one express—a daily
service between Milan and Venice. Services in Sweden—then still a
poverty-stricken agricultural country—were “poor,” but Denmark
had several good trains. Hungary, meanwhile, was praised for
allowing the Orient Express (see pp.190–97) to average 32mph (51kph),
which was faster than in neighboring Austria. In the US, the only
trains that qualified as expresses were in the east, including the best
service in the world—a train that ran the 40-mile (64-km) trip
between Washington, DC, and Baltimore at an average of 53mph
(85kph). Otherwise, Foxwell and Farrer were disappointed at the
speed of many services in the US, finding that even those with famous
names, which often contained words like “Flyer,” barely qualified as
express trains, averaging only around the 30-mph (48-kph) mark.
The problem, they found, was that tracks in the US often had to go
through the center of towns, where the trains had to travel very
slowly because of potentially dangerous grade crossings.
HIGH-SPEED STEAM TRAINS 305
LEADING THE WAY

Engineers board a steam locomotive on a French
railroad in 1870. The French led the race for greater
speed, calling their high-speed services “exprès”
trains (literally, “with purpose”).
This intrepid pair of timetable-watchers returned to their task a

decade later and found that considerable improvements had been
made. By the start of the 20th century, France led the way with 20
daily expresses averaging at least 56mph (90kph) and a series of fast
international services running from Paris that covered much of
Western Europe, including Vienna and Warsaw. In Germany and
Britain, too, expresses routinely averaged 50mph (80kph) or more.
Part of the reason for these increases in speed was a trend that had
begun around the time of Foxwell and Farrer’s first survey—rival
railroad companies would vie for the fastest journey time between
two points. The first such contest took place in Britain, in a bid for the
best time between London and Scotland. Two parallel lines, the East
Coast and West Coast main lines, traveled between these two
destinations. The companies that ran these services had a tacit
agreement that journey times between London and Edinburgh would
be 9 hours by the East Coast, and 10 by the longer West Coast route,
which also had to contend with steeper grades. But in June 1888, the
two West Coast companies—the London and North Western and
the Caledonian, which together provided a joint service—announced
that they would cut the extra hour from their service. A few weeks
later, just ahead of the Scottish grouse-shooting season—which
started on August 11 and represented a lucrative period for the
THE SCENIC ROUTE

A poster for the London-to-Scotland
West Coast line c.1910. Competition
with the East Coast line reduced
journey times by several hours.
London–Scotland operators—the East

Coast companies (the Great Northern,
the North Eastern, and the North
British) retaliated. They cut half an
hour from their timetable by limiting
stopping times, reducing the journey
time to 8 hours and 30 minutes.
The North Western (the main
company on the West Coast route)
responded quickly, vowing to slash
the journey time to 8 hours—a full
20 percent reduction on its previous
10-hour schedule. The East Coast
companies hit back in this dramatic game of poker, promising a
journey time of 7 hours and 45 minutes. As the battle reached its
height, people gathered at the point of departure to see off the
rival trains, and their performance was reported in the manner of
weekend football games. Tower operators along the routes took
special care not to slow down these prestigious trains, and teams
of workers ensured that the tracks were up to standard. Eventually,
the East Coast companies peaked with a run of just 7 hours and
30 minutes later that summer, but the contest concluded soon
after as the rivals came to agree on a standard journey time at
8 hours and 30 minutes.
Seven years later, in the summer of 1895—following the completion
of the Forth Bridge, which greatly reduced journey times to the
north of Scotland—an even fiercer and ultimately more dangerous
race broke out. This time the trains ran by night, and the “race course”
was extended to Aberdeen—over 500 miles (800km) from London by
rail, and about 100 miles (160km) further than Edinburgh, the previous
terminus. For added excitement, the trains from the two rival lines
were forced to share the final section of track after the Kinnaber
junction, 38 miles (61km) south of Aberdeen. The first train to reach
this point was the clear winner. The contest lasted for 17 days in August
1895 and attracted huge crowds at the departure and arrival points. Rival
companies engaged in various underhand methods, such as not stopping
at intermediate points, traveling with just two or three cars to keep the
weight down, and simply ignoring the timetable altogether. By the end,
the times were incredible, with the East Coast service a mere 8 hours and
40 minutes. The West Coast companies finally managed to beat this
by 8 minutes with an average speed of 63mph (101kph). However, the
affluent passengers arriving for the season’s grouse shooting did not
welcome being turned out of their comfortable cars at Aberdeen at
5am, rather than 7am, which had been perfectly timed for breakfast.
Concerns over safety and cost caused the contest to peter out.
Furthermore, the following summer a major disaster occurred at
Preston on the West Coast line due to excessive speed. An inexperienced
engineer failed to slow the train as it passed through the station, where
a curve demanded a speed restriction of 10mph (16kph). Unlike most
trains passing through Preston, the service was scheduled to run
through without stopping, and the train jumped the tracks at 45mph
(72kph). There was only one fatality, but the accident alerted passengers
and the railroad companies to the risks of focusing purely on speed.
By 1900, the Great Western Railway (GWR), the biggest of the British
companies in terms of mileage, was leading the race for speed. In 1904,
one of its new locomotives, City of Truro, was clocked at 102mph (164kph)
on a downhill stretch in Somerset. Although the exact speed is disputed,
it is generally considered one of the first times in the world that the
100mph (160kph) barrier was breached. This occurred during a
campaign by GWR to establish itself as the premier railroad company
in Britain. The company’s ambition led to competition with the London
and South Western (LSWR) company over traffic from liners sailing to
and from the US. Transatlantic ocean liners had traditionally docked at
the English port of Southampton, with passengers then traveling
onward to London by train. However, to save time, since travel by land
“… the traveling was so curiously

smooth that […] it was difficult to
believe we were moving at all…”
CHARLES ROUS-MARTEN, ON THE CITY OF TRURO'S RECORD-BREAKING RUN
is so much faster than by sea, ships also began docking at the port of
Plymouth—over 150 miles (240km) west of Southampton. Though
further from London, passengers could rapidly cover the remaining
distance by train, shaving nearly a day off the total journey. The LSWR
had traditionally served Plymouth, but now the GWR also wanted a
slice of the action. A full-scale war broke out as rival companies ran
trains with no particular timetable, simply picking up passengers from
ships as they arrived and steaming to London as quickly as possible.
This was to have tragic consequences on June 30, when a special service
that had left Plymouth just before midnight attempted to travel
through the city of Salisbury at more than twice the 30mph (48kph)
speed restriction and came off the rails. Of the 43 passengers on board,
24 were killed. While these special services were later run with more
care, the race between the two companies continued until 1910.
In the US, the race for the fastest time between New York and
Chicago lasted many years. It had begun in 1887, when the Pennsylvania
Railroad introduced the Pennsylvania Limited—an all-Pullman affair
boasting a barber’s shop, valet, and maid service. Two years later the
New York Central Railroad responded with a train that covered
the 436 miles (701km) between New York and Buffalo in 7 hours, at an
average speed of 61mph (98kph). Then in 1902, the Central hit back
with the launch of the Twentieth Century Limited express train, which
covered the near-1,000-mile (1,600-km) distance between New York
and Chicago in 20 hours—a reduction of 4 hours on the usual time. In
response, the “Pennsy,” as it was known, renamed the Pennsylvania Limited
the Pennsylvania Special, and managed to complete the journey in the
same time as its Central rival. A battle ensued, with each company
repeatedly trying to reduce the journey time in a series of much-
publicized initiatives. However, these grand contests proved too costly
for both companies, and eventually a gentlemen’s agreement of a
20-hour journey time was reached.
Train races of this kind largely died down until the 1930s, when they
were revived as a last-gasp attempt to help steam technology see off
competition from rival methods of traction. Steam engines had
improved remarkably between the wars thanks to several illustrious
engineers. The greatest of these was Frenchman André Chapelon,
whose rigorous scientific analysis and emphasis on efficiency were
widely imitated, leading to radical improvements in locomotive
performance. In Britain, a contest broke out in 1937 between the two
consolidated companies—Britain’s many companies had been merged

into just four in 1923—serving the Scottish route. William Stanier,
chief engineer at the London, Midland, and Scottish (LMS), built the
Princess Coronation class of high-speed locomotives, which are widely
recognized as the best British locomotives ever produced. On a specially
arranged press trip, the first engine of the class reached 114mph
(183kph), a speed that was intended to better the effort of its rival, the
London and North Eastern Railway’s (LNER) streamlined A4 Pacifics.
The LNER claimed that an A4 had reached 113mph (181kph), but when
the company learned the record had been beaten, it planned a record
run in great secrecy. This was eventually undertaken in 1938 when
Mallard, a streamlined A4, reached 126⅞mph (202.6kph) in a specially
organized run on a straight piece of downhill track south of Grantham.
This record for steam locomotives would never be surpassed, although
a German Class 05 locomotive had come close two years earlier when it
reached 124½mph (200.4kph) between Hamburg and Berlin. In the US,
the use of high-speed diesels (see pp.224–31) on prestigious routes
spelled the end of steam, and, by the 1970s, steam power in continental
Europe had mostly been displaced by large-scale electrification.
RECORD-SETTER
In 1905, the steam locomotive
PRR 7002 set a record time for
the Pennsylvania Special service
from New York to Chicago.
THE FASTEST-EVER STEAM TRAIN

The A4 Pacific-class Mallard charges through
the English countryside. On January 3, 1938,
it reached 126mph (203kph)—the fastest-
ever speed for a steam locomotive.
Going Diesel: from the Fliegende

Hamburger to the Future
S TEAM ENGINES WERE DIRTY BEASTS—difficult to maintain,

temperamental, and inefficient—so a search for alternatives started
early. Experiments with electric traction led the way, but once the
internal combustion engine had been invented, attempts to apply it
on the railroads were bound to follow. The first internal combustion
engines tried out on trains were fueled by gasoline, but it did not
prove efficient and was expensive, especially for large engines.
German engineer Rudolf Diesel invented and patented the
eponymous Diesel engine in 1892. Instead of a spark plug, it used air
heated by high compression to ignite the fuel. Two main types of diesel
engine are now in use: one provides power directly; the other, the
diesel-electric, uses a diesel engine to power a generator, which then
provides electricity for propulsion. Both have been used extensively.
Following Diesel’s invention, experiments with locomotives began
almost at once. However, there were numerous technical obstacles to
overcome before they could be put into practical use, and, apart from
a few appearing on a small Swedish railroad, diesel engines were not
introduced until after World War I.
Efforts to build functional diesel locomotives continued through
the 1920s. Despite some success on the US and Canadian railroads, the
real pioneer was Germany, which began experimenting with powerful
diesel engines for rail propulsion. The result was a two-car unit called
the Fliegende Hamburger (“Flying Hamburger”), which represented a
considerable advance for rail technology in both speed and efficiency.
The Germans had, in fact, already established the world’s rail speed
record with a bizarre-looking four-wheel coach powered by a gasoline
aircraft engine with an airplane-type propeller at the back. It was built
by BMW and reached 143mph (230kph) on a test run in June 1931, but a
host of technical difficulties ensured it never saw regular service.
By contrast, the Fliegende Hamburger did become a widely used model
on several routes, first going into service under this name in the winter
of 1932–33. It covered the 178 miles (286km) between Berlin and
Hamburg in 2 hours and 20 minutes—an average speed of 76mph
(122kph)—which required cruising speeds of around 100mph (160kph)
G O I N G D I E S E L : F RO M T H E F L I E GE N DE H A M BU RGE R T O T H E F U T U R E 313
THE FLIEGENDE HAMBURGER

The streamlined design of the Fliegende
Hamburger improved the train’s speed and
efficiency by reducing wind resistance,
but also created an enduring design style.
to maintain the timetable, making it by far the fastest rail service in

the world. The train had a remarkable streamlined design, like a
Zeppelin airship, the result of wind-resistance tests in a wind tunnel.
Although Hitler preferred automobiles, which he saw as the
transportation of the future, the Fliegende Hamburger became part of his
propaganda exercise to show the superiority of the “Thousand-Year
Reich.” The success of the Fliegende Hamburger soon led to the design
being used on other services: two years later, a similar service was
introduced on the Berlin–Cologne route, with an average speed of
82mph (132kph), and a Fliegende Frankfurter (“Flying Frankfurter”)
service followed. These diesel trains represented a radical technological
development, but were laid up in World War II because of fuel
shortages and only saw service again briefly after the war.
It was in the United States that diesel technology was developed more
widely and successfully than elsewhere. Its development took place
against the background of a need to compete in a nation where
automobiles and later planes were eroding rail’s market share. The US
railroad companies had been taken over by the government during
World War I because of their incompetence and refusal to cooperate
with one another. They emerged from state control eager to improve
what they offered, by using prestigious trains such as the Pennsylvania
Special and Twentieth Century Limited as their trademark services.
By the late 1920s, however, these services had begun to seem slow,
and their proprietors were desperately seeking a new technology to
speed the trains up. This was particularly true for the railroad
companies whose services crossed the vast swathes of the West. With
car use still not widespread and aviation in its infancy (both the
Model T Ford, the first affordable American automobile, and the first
commercial domestic flight, between Boston and New York, were
launched in 1927) and planes still posing a safety risk, the railroad
companies began to look to diesel as the answer to their problems.
These new diesel trains were a different kind of train to the steam-
hauled services. Consisting of perhaps half a dozen or eight cars, they
were exclusively for passengers and provided a high degree of comfort.
They were built of light stainless steel and alloys, which made them
look sleek—especially compared to the heavy, conventional steam
trains—and they ran fast between major cities, with limited stops to
improve journey times.
While some diesel locomotives had already been introduced by

various US railroads, these were confined to switching service since
the powerful diesel engines were thought too heavy to be economical
compared with traditional steam. Gasoline engines continued to be
tried on some trains, such as the three-car Blue Bird trains of the
Chicago Great Western Railroad that ran between the Twin Cities
(St. Paul and Minneapolis) and Rochester, Minnesota—but again,
they were simply too expensive to operate.
A key technical breakthrough for diesel engines was made by
General Motors, the automobile company, which used alloys rather
than steel to give a better power-to-weight ratio. The new, lighter
engine attracted the attention of Ralph Budd, the head of the Chicago,
Burlington, and Quincy Railroad—the Burlington, as it was
known—at the Chicago Fair of 1932. Budd, one of the few railroad
visionaries of the interwar period, realized the more powerful
engine’s potential to revolutionize long-distance rail travel. After
seeing the engine at the fair, he commissioned a new type of
streamlined diesel locomotive whose sleek and elegant looks were an
attraction in themselves. Called the Pioneer Zephyr (the name Zephyr,
meaning light west wind, came from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, which
Budd had been reading), it was launched amid much fanfare in May
BURLINGTON PIONEER ZEPHYR

The streamlined American Zephyrs gave the German
trains a good run for their money in terms of speed
and mimicked their gleaming, aerodynamic shapes.
1934 with a record-breaking “Dawn to Dusk Run” between Denver,

Colorado, and Chicago. The 1,000-mile (1,600-km) trip was covered at
an average of 78mph (126kph), remarkable by US standards and almost
as good as the German diesels. However, a lot of special measures had
been taken: patrol staff were placed on all 1,689 grade crossings along
the route to stop car traffic well ahead of the train, and the train was
limited to just three cars to reduce the weight. Famously, Budd
reported that the fuel for the train was far cheaper than coal, costing
a mere $14.64—although, at 4 cents per 1 gallon (3.8 liters), that meant
366 gallons (1,386 liters).
While such fast speeds could not be achieved on regular journeys,
the train was far faster than any before and became the pioneer for a
host of services that transformed American long-distance train travel
in the years running up to World War II. A veritable family of Zephyrs
and other trains sprang up on routes across the expanses of the
West and along the East Coast, operated by these elegant new
streamlined diesels. The Burlington, spurred on by Budd’s enthusiasm,
introduced in quick succession the Twin Cities Zephyr, between the twin
cities and Chicago, and the Mark Twain Zephyr to St. Louis.
The Union Pacific’s pioneer train went on a nationwide tour in 1934
before entering active service as the Kansas Streamliner. Renamed the City
of Salina in 1936, it could run at more than 90mph (145kph) for long
distances, averaging a stunning 92mph (148kph) on its run across the
Nebraskan plains. The pièce de résistance of the period was the record-
setting coast-to-coast journey by the City of Portland, a Union Pacific
six-car sleeper train, which traveled the 3,250 miles (5,230km) between
New York and Los Angeles in 56 hours and 55 minutes—nearly a day
TRAIN OF THE STARS

The Santa Fe Super
Chief, which was
launched in 1936
and ran between
Los Angeles and
Chicago, was known
as the “train of the
stars” because it was
said to be Hollywood
actors’ favorite mode
of transportation.
AVERAGE SPEED OF THE AVERAGE SPEED OF THE

FLIEGENDE HAMBURGER CITY OF SALINA
76(122mph
kph)
92 mph
(148 kph)
faster than the regular coast-to-coast service. Moreover, the fuel cost
was only $80, compared with $280 for coal. This was only a trial run,
however, and a nonstop coast-to-coast service was never established as
passengers had to change trains at Chicago or St. Louis.
These modern diesels later acquired observation cars and other
amenities to satisfy their affluent clientele. A fabulous variety of food
and drink was on offer and for a while the trains became the envy of the
world, with the companies competing to provide the best facilities.
These trains were the height of America’s rail system, indeed, they were
probably the best the world had ever seen, but by the 1950s, as flying
became safer and cheaper, they began to be phased out. Diesel remains,
however, the main form of traction on US railroads to this day, with
only a very small proportion of electrified railroads. Indeed, the typical
image of American rail is of freight trains more than 100 cars long, being
hauled by three or four powerful diesel locomotives.
Elsewhere in the world, diesels began to replace steam locomotives

soon after World War II. Diesel multiple units, in particular, were a
great way of saving money on branch lines. These had engines under
the floor of the car, so that there was no need for a locomotive, and
they could be driven from either end, obviating the need to turn
around. The French even developed a rubber-tired diesel train called
the Micheline, which was used extensively on minor routes.
However, electrification was often chosen over diesel. While it is
initially more expensive, electric haulage is ultimately cheaper, cleaner,
and offers faster acceleration. On many suburban services, steam trains
were replaced directly with electric trains rather than diesels.
Nevertheless, with only Switzerland operating a 100 percent electrified
network, diesel remains an important form of traction, in particular
for heavy freight and on little-used lines where the cost of electrification
is not worthwhile. Diesel trains will be with us for a long time yet.
Diesel Power
Meets Electricity
Diesel-electric traction emerged as the economically and functionally
superior successor to steam power in the 1940s. Power is derived from
a diesel engine (the “prime mover”), but is transformed into electricity by a
generator that powers motors in the trucks, which in turn propel the train.
Twin exhaust
MARYLAND AND PENNSYLVANIA NO.81 (1946) stacks
No.81, a General Motors EMD NW2-class switcher,
was one of the first diesel-electrics to see widespread 44ft (13m)
use. Popular due to its low cost and versatility, in length
this small yet powerful class remains in service
in small numbers even today.
Two dual-axle trucks in Power output of 1,000hp (750kw)

a “B-B” arrangement
GN NO.201 (1947) CNL NO.6505 (1949)

This RS-2 class diesel-electric switcher was The EMD F7 diesel-electric was designed for
built by ALCO, and was one of 20 purchased by freight, but was also used for passenger trains
the Great Northern Railroad (US) to replace its by some operators. Economical to operate
coal-fired locomotives. Its 12-cylinder engine and maintain, the pictured unit runs on the
yields a power output of 1,500hp (1,100kw). Conway Scenic Railroad (US) heritage line.
319
SP NO.6051 (1954) ERIE LACKAWANNA NO.3607 (1967)

One of nine EMD E9 diesel-electric passenger No.3607 was a General Motors EMD SD45, a
locomotives run by the Southern Pacific six-axle diesel-electric freight locomotive
Railroad, No.6051 hauled services out of Los with a power output of 3,600hp (2,680kw).
Angeles. Capable of a 2,400-hp (1,790-kW) power More than a thousand units were produced
output, it was retired in 1969 and restored to its between 1965 and 1971, a small number of
original “daylight” red-orange paint scheme. which are still in operation on US railroads.
14ft 6in
(4.4m) in
height
BRITISH RAILWAYS D200 (1958)

An English Electric Type 4 Class 40, D200
was one of the first wave of diesel-electrics to
ply the rails in Britain. With a top speed of
90mph (140kph), the class had been intended
for passenger expresses, but was relegated to
slower passenger and freight services.
Total weight of 124 tons (112
tonnes)
NS NO.9628 (1996)
Norfolk Southern
Railroad (US) still
operates a fleet of 1,090
General Electric Dash
9-40CW diesel-electric
locomotives, the first
of which was introduced
in 1996. The class is
powered by a 16-cylinder
engine that is limited
to a power output of
4,000hp (3,000kw) to
improve running costs.
World War II:

Atrocities on the Line
A LTHOUGH THE RAILROADS’ ROLE IN WORLD WAR II was

not quite as fundamental as it had been during the World War I
(see pp.270–75), they were nevertheless a vital part of the logistics of
war. With gasoline in short supply and a lack of modernized roads in
many conflict areas, the railroads carried troops and supplies far and
wide. However, the railroads were also involved in two of the greatest
war crimes of the World War II: the Holocaust, which resulted in the
deaths of two thirds of all the Jews in Europe at the hands of the Third
Reich, and the construction of the Burma (now Myanmar) to Siam
(now Thailand) Railway, for which the Japanese used prisoners of war.
These two events portray a darker side that is often left untold in
railroad histories, but vividly, if hauntingly, demonstrates the power of
the railroads and their significance to those who controlled them.
Approximately six million Jews were killed by the Nazis in the
Holocaust, along with millions more from other groups such as Slavs,
Poles, Romanies, communists, and homosexuals. Most of the victims
were taken to death camps by train, and the sheer volume and speed
of the deportations would not have been possible without intensive
use of the railroads. Any other method of transportation would have
presented insuperable problems—to have devoted so many trucks to
the task would have damaged the Germans’ war effort, and marching
victims along roads might have revealed the true horrors of the Nazi’s
plans to the wider population.
The first of these trains were used principally to move German
Jews to ghettos and ran between Germany and Poland (and then
further east to Riga in Latvia). The grim dispatch of Jews and other
sections of the population to the concentration and death camps
began in the spring of 1942, and the flow intensified over the following
two years. These deportations were carried out in a systematic
manner on an industrial scale, as part of the “Final Solution” agreed
at the notorious Wannsee conference in January 1942. Efficiency was
seen as essential and required the active involvement of numerous
German government ministries, including the Reich Security Main
Office (RSHA), the Transport Ministry, and the Foreign Office, as
WO R L D WA R I I : AT RO C I T I E S O N T H E L I N E 321
well as the corresponding organizations in other allied or occupied

states who were required to hand over their citizens. Many railroad
workers were involved, too.
The deportations were mostly carried out in freight cars. Some
victims, notably those from the Netherlands and Belgium, were
transported in third class passenger cars, partly to maintain the
subterfuge that they were merely being re-homed. Conditions on
the trains were appalling: the freight cars were supposed to be filled
with up to 50 people, but in fact, due to a shortage of cars, they
sometimes had as many as 150 occupants, which meant standing
room only. Trains could carry a maximum of only 55 cars each, as
anything longer would travel too slowly. There was no food or
water on the journey and only a bucket latrine. The only ventilation
was through a barred window and consequently many people
suffocated. In the summer, the temperature could be unbearably
hot and victims baked, while in the winter the temperature
plummeted and victims froze. The trains were given the lowest
priority on the railroad network and consequently journeys were
AUSCHWITZ II—BIRKENAU
Trains carrying deportees entered this extermination
camp in Poland on a specially built branch line that
extended right up to the gates of the camp.
often delayed while more important military convoys were allowed

through. This meant that the deportees were sometimes held in
sidings for days and the average time for journeys, which should
have taken a day or so, was four and a half days. The longest journey
involved the deportation of Jews from the Greek island of Corfu,
who were taken by boat to the Greek mainland and then transferred
to a train. The train was held up several times and consequently
took 18 days to reach Auschwitz. By then, many of the occupants
were already dead. Given the conditions, length of the journey, and
the lack of food and water, deaths in transit were common
and most trains arrived containing several corpses.
One of the least known but cruelest parts of the deportation
process was the fact that the victims were forced to buy tickets for
the journey, a full one-way fare for adults, with children being
charged half price. This scheme generated an astonishing amount
of revenue, calculated at around 240 million Reichmarks (around
$201 million). At the peak of the process, there were up to 10 trains
per week arriving at the camps. For the Nazis, it was the very
efficiency of this mode of transportation that made the
extermination of so many people possible. The despatch of trains
only began to slow down when the Allies invaded France in the
summer of 1944 and the operation ceased entirely as the Third
Reich began to fall apart in the spring of 1945. In the 21st century,
several railroad companies have apologized for their role in these
wartime deportations, including Dutch railways Nederlandse
Spoorwegen in 2005 and French SNCF in 2011.
During the Holocaust the railroads conveyed millions to their deadly

destinations. Meanwhile, in Asia it was the railroad line itself that was
the scene of another war crime. When the Japanese overran Singapore,
the main British naval base in Southeast Asia, in February 1942, they
captured more than 80,000 British, Indian, and Australian troops.
Along with 50,000 existing prisoners, many were sent to work on the
construction of the Burma to Siam Railway, which was intended to
provide the Japanese with a vital supply line as they advanced
westward, toward India.
As there was no adequate existing road or rail links between the
two countries and the sea route was vulnerable to attack from Allied
ships and submarines, a railroad seemed the obvious solution. To
BRIDGE BUILDING
Prisoners build at bridge Tamarkan, 34 miles (55km) north of
Nong Pladuk in Siam. The scaffolding was made from bamboo,
but the bridge, completed in April 1943, was made of steel.
build the 300-mile (483-km) line, which went through harsh

mountainous territory and tropical rainforest, the Japanese used
forced labor of up to 330,000 men, mostly made up of conscripted
locals, but also including more than 60,000 Allied Prisoners of War.
The line was started simultaneously from both ends, Thanbyuzayat
in Burma and Nong Pladuk in Siam, in June 1942. There was a constant
shortage of materials and most of the equipment, including tracks
and ties, was brought from dismantled branches of other local
railroads. The human cost was, however, appalling and the line
became known as the “Death Railway.” Dutch merchant sailor Fred
Seiker described his experience as PoW on the railway labor force:
You carried a basket from the digging area to the top of the embankment,
emptied it and down again to be filled for your next trip up the hill. Or
you carried a stretcher—two bamboo poles pushed through an empty
rice sack—one chap at each end, and off you went. Simple really. But in
reality this job was far from easy. The slopes of the embankments
consisted of loose earth, clambering to the top was a case of sliding and
slithering with a weight of earth in attendance. This proved to be very
tiring on thigh muscles and painful, often resulting in crippling cramp.
You just had to stop, you could not move. Whenever this occurred the
Japs were on you with their heavy sticks, and beat the living daylight out
of you. Somehow you got going again, if only to escape the blows.
Working hours were typically 7:30am to 10pm and the food rations
were just 7oz (200g) of rice per day, often with no vegetables, let
alone meat. Robert Hardie, a British doctor who was captured in
Singapore, described in diaries published posthumously in the 1980s
how the Japanese would line up the sick that he was tending and
demand that a dozen of them should be sent to the work camp. He
wrote: “One is under constant pressure to provide men to work under
this Nipponese system: for certain groups of men are given certain
work to do in a certain time. If many go sick in a group, the others
have to work all the harder and longer”. Hardie also recounted the
repeated refusals of his captors to provide even basic medical supplies,
as well as their indifference to the spread of diseases, such as cholera,
malaria, and dysentery. The death rate was particularly high in the
final months of the railroad’s construction as the Japanese were
desperate for the line to be completed.
Despite the weakness of the men due to starvation and disease,
their sheer numbers and the pressure from their Japanese guards
ensured that the line was completed remarkably quickly, in just
16 months. On October 17, 1943, the two sections of the line met,
HELLFIRE PASS
The most difficult section of the line involved cutting
through rock in a remote area of Siam. The work
was extremely arduous, especially given the lack of
adequate tools, and became known as Hellfire Pass.
“It didn’t matter how many men

died, the railway would be built.
And it was built at a terrific cost”
JOHN LESLIE GRAHAM, BRITISH PoW
11 miles (17km) south of the Three Pagodas Pass at Konkuita in Siam.

By this time the death toll was estimated to have reached more than
100,000, a figure that included a quarter of all the Allied prisoners.
The railroad immediately became a vital part of the Japanese line of
communication after their navy lost control of the South China Sea
during the summer of 1942. However, as an essential bridge to the
Burmese railroad system was never completed, the supply route still
entailed transporting some goods via ferry.
The story of the Burma to Siam Railway reached a wider
audience through the 1957 David Lean film The Bridge on the River
Kwai, which was based on a book by Pierre Boulle. The story refers
to Bridge 277, built over a stretch of river that was then called Mae
Klong. The tale is largely fiction, since it shows the bridge ultimately
being destroyed by sabotage. In reality, the bridge remained in
working condition, despite the men’s attempt to undermine it by
mixing the concrete poorly and encouraging termites to use
wooden supports as nests. Although the film was criticized as
unrealistic and failing to depict accurately the appalling conditions
which the men lived and died under, it nevertheless helped to
ensure that the memory of this terrible project lasted longer than
the line itself. Much of the railroad was damaged during the war
and it never fully reopened. A few sections, such as the line between
Kanchanabur and Nong Pladuk, did reopen in the 1950s, but most
of it was abandoned, submerged under water by the Vajiralongkorn
dam, or reclaimed by the jungle. Today a daily tourist train runs
along the surviving 130-mile (209-km) section, while other parts
have been converted to a walking trail. Three large cemeteries
honoring those who lost their lives building the line can be found
along the route, along with an Australian-built memorial and
museum at Hellfire Pass, and several smaller memorials.
TRACKS OF THE PAST

Tourists can still get a glimpse of some
of the unforgiving and perilous terrain
through which the Burma to Siam
Railway was constructed.
The Iron
Road Today
KYUSHU SHINKANSEN 80O
ELECTRIC, 2011
I n the immediate postwar years the railroads suffered a period of
decline. The car had become the preeminent form of passenger
transportation, and the semitruck dominated the freight business.
Highways were being built across the world, and they were intended to
replace the railroads. The plane had also become affordable, and both
international and domestic services were proliferating globally.
Railroad closures were inevitable, starting with branch lines and rural
tracks, then spreading to the main lines themselves. In the United
States, the decline of passenger railroads was particularly swift, and for
a while it seemed as if they would barely last into the 21st century.
Then everything changed. The oil crisis of the mid-1970s, together
with congestion on the roads and environmental concerns regarding
exhaust emissions, suddenly brought the train back into fashion. In
Japan, high-speed “bullet” trains were introduced, which traveled
faster than any car, and networks of similar lines were built in France
and Germany, and later in China and Spain. Moreover, when the long-
proposed 31-mile (50-km) Channel Tunnel linking France and Britain
was finally given the go-ahead, it was built to carry trains because a
railroad was the only practical way of traveling in such a long tunnel.
Similarly, to relieve the pressure of congestion on Europe’s Alpine
roads, a series of lengthy modern rail tunnels are now being built
under the mountains. In 2006, China completed the highest railroad in
the world—the Qinghai–Tibet line, which offers a far easier journey
than the highly dangerous road—and is currently building the largest
high-speed network in the world.
The railroads are therefore booming in the 21st century. Light rail
systems, subways, high-speed lines, and newly electrified tracks are
being built across the world. The 19th-century invention has found
new friends in the 21st century and is enjoying a fantastic renaissance
thanks to its ability to transport masses of people quickly and cheaply.
330 T H E I RON ROA D TODAY
Brezhnev’s Folly
O F ALL THE MANY HAREBRAINED IDEAS in the history of the

railroads, one takes the prize for being not only the craziest but also
the most costly. That winner is the 2,300-mile (3,700-km) Baikal-Amur
Mainline, a branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway (see pp.180–89) that
dwarfed the original railroad both in difficulty and cost. It was one of the
most ambitious of numerous megaprojects dreamed up by the Soviet
regime to demonstrate the superiority of Communism (others included
the space program and a plan to reverse the flow of several Siberian
rivers, which was fortunately abandoned). The BAM, as the railroad
became universally known, took three quarters of a century to complete
and cost $14 billion, but its worth still remains in doubt.
The idea behind the BAM was to provide an alternative route to
the existing Trans-Siberian, which ran from European Russia to the
Asian Pacific. The Soviet regime first mooted the railroad as a strategic
alternative in the 1930s Stalinist era, following disputes with China
and Japan over a section of the Trans-Siberian that crossed Chinese
territory to reach Vladivostok. Even the Amur Railway, a longer
route over exclusively Russian territory that was completed in 1916,
was considered too close to the Chinese frontier and therefore
vulnerable to attack. To counteract the perceived threat, Stalin’s
government passed a secret decree to construct a new line running
parallel to the existing Trans-Siberian but around 500 miles (800km)
farther north. No details of the route were set out other than the
terminal at Tayshet, where the line diverged from the Trans-Siberian,
and Sovetskaya Gavan, on the Pacific Ocean north of Vladivostok.
The land crossed by the proposed new railroad was virtually
uninhabited, as most of the population of Siberia had settled within
100 miles (160km) of the Trans-Siberian, so the reasons for undertaking
this vast project were (the Sino-Japanese menace notwithstanding)
questionable. The Soviet government had started publishing five-
year plans setting out its economic targets, and its Second Five-Year
Plan, for 1933–37, emphasized the economic advantages of building
the BAM. It “will traverse little-investigated regions of eastern Siberia
and bring to life an enormous new territory and its colossal riches—
amber, gold, coal—and also make possible the cultivation of great
tracts of land suitable for agriculture,” the plan stated.
BR E Z H N E V ’ S F OL LY 331
BA I K A L -A M UR M A I N L I N E
Major city
City/town
RUSSIA
Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM)
Trans-Siberian Railway
National boundary
Neryungri
Komsomol’sk-
Udokan na-Amure
Tynda
Kansk Bratsk Plateau
Sovetskaya
Skovorodino Gavan
Tayshet Khabarosk
l
aika
eB
k
Irkutsk La
CHINA
VLADIVOSTOK
MONGOLIA
Surveyors were dispatched to the Siberian wastes to prospect the land.

Working under a reign of terror, several were executed for not doing
their job properly in the view of the regime, while others ended up in
the construction gangs. These were made up of prisoners—mainly
political—sent to the Gulag (the government’s corrective labor camps)
by Stalin’s increasingly repressive regime. Tayshet became infamous as a
camp for Gulag prisoners working on the railroad after Alexandre
Solzhenitsyn described it in The Gulag Archipelago. Published first in the
West in 1973, the book drew the world’s attention to the atrocities that
took place in Soviet forced labor camps under Stalin. Hundreds of
thousands of prisoners were sent to camps in Siberia and forced to work
on the line in appalling conditions—far worse than those endured on
the Trans-Siberian. Russians knew that being sent to the “Bamlag”—
the camps of the BAM Gulag—was a death sentence, as prisoners were
subjected to unendurably harsh conditions and systematically starved.
The northern latitude of the track meant that most of the terrain
it traversed was permafrost—a leftover of the freezing temperatures
of the Ice Age—which presented particular difficulties for track-
laying. Once railroad workers started digging through the insulating
surface layer of soil to the permafrost, ice that had been frozen for
millennia thawed and did not refreeze, even in winter. Instead, the
land turned marshy and unstable. Waiting for the ground to settle
would have delayed work by years, so tracks were laid regardless,
resulting in rail breaks and derailments. Disturbing the permafrost
also led to an increase in seismic activity in the region.
Not surprisingly, little progress was made on the line. On top of
permafrost and earthquakes, the mountainous region north of Lake
Baikal posed insurmountable difficulties. Weather conditions were
extreme, with only 90 frost-free days a year, and winter temperatures
as low as –76 °F (–60 °C), meant that mechanical equipment did not
work and special cold-resistant steel had to be used for the rails. These
factors, combined with a starving labor force, meant that by the
outbreak of World War II, when work was halted, only a couple of
short sections at each end had been completed.
Remarkably, as soon as the war ended in 1945, work resumed on this
vain project, which Stalin seemed intent on completing. The workforce
was now made up of Japanese and German prisoners of war, who were
treated more harshly even than the prewar domestic convicts. It is
CONDITIONS IN THE GULAG

This ink drawing by a Gulag inmate gives a sense of
the conditions endured by forced laborers working on
the BAM—cold, hungry, and worked to the bone.
“BAM will be constructed

with clean hands”
LEONID BREZHNEV
estimated that of 100,000 German POWs sent to the Ozerlag camp near
Lake Baikal, only 10 percent survived to be repatriated in 1955; the
Japanese prisoners suffered similar rates of mortality. A conservative
estimate of the death toll of the two groups is 150,000—and all for
nothing, since barely 450 miles (725km) of the line had been completed
by the time work was again halted following Stalin’s death in 1953.
The demise of Stalin and his repressions might have signaled the
end of the BAM project. Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin’s successor, showed
no interest in the railroad, and the Gulag camps that had provided its
labor were closed. By the 1960s, however, interest was revived, with a
series of ostensible new reasons to build it: the line would relieve
congestion on the Trans-Siberian, open up gas fields in western
Siberia, and provide a new route for burgeoning container traffic
between the Far East and Europe. Moreover, vast copper deposits had
been discovered at Udokan, 250 miles (400km) east of Lake Baikal.
It was Leonid Brezhnev, the uninspiring and deeply conservative
leader whose stern demeanor characterized Soviet rule in the 1970s,
who decided to restart the program. Now a new type of cheap labor
was to be used: volunteers of the “All-Union Leninist Youth League”
(the Komsomol). The project was turned into a propaganda exercise,
in the hands of the Komsomol, not only to demonstrate the
advantages of the Communist way, but also to enthuse a whole
generation of young people with that ideal. By helping to build the
line, the volunteers would become lifelong supporters of the regime.
Building the BAM became a rallying cry for Socialist propaganda as
well as a path to victory over the obstacles that nature and the
elements posed against humankind, making it a struggle that had to
be won, at whatever cost—and that cost was to prove enormous.
In 1972, after much secret preparation, the Komsomol announced
that work on the railroad would restart immediately and the BAM
would be completed in 10 years (later extended by two years to 1984).
The project was given priority over other Soviet plans and a nationwide
appeal for volunteers was issued. While some young people may have
turned up at the recruitment offices for idealistic reasons, there were
WORKERS’ PRIZE
Idealistic young Komsomol workers on
the BAM were rewarded with medals
and praise, as well as material goods
such as cars and housing.
practical incentives too: volunteers were promised

priority allocation of housing and cars, both of which
were in short supply in Soviet Russia, and for those interested
in a political career, working on the BAM was essential for
their résumés. The pay was good too, compared with
jobs back home. However, even those who started off
with genuine enthusiasm were soon disillusioned. They
were well treated, but once they discovered the sheer
scale of the project and the incompetent way in which it
was being run, it dawned on them that the railroad was no advertisement
for the Communist system—quite the opposite. They realized, as
geologists and other scientists had long known, that creating a railroad
in northern Siberia was not a good idea.
There were innumerable practical difficulties. The recruits were
given little training for what was a skilled task, no detailed route had
been prepared, and the physical conditions were even worse than
expected. Attempts to continue work in winter, because of the
ideological need for rapid progress, were counterproductive. Although
work was stopped when temperatures reached –4 °F (–20 °C), even
above that temperature bulldozers stopped functioning and axes
shattered. Any lessons learned from previous attempts to work in the
permafrost seemed to have been forgotten, and once again whole
sections of track gradually sank into the morass, while station and
warehouse buildings constructed on shaky foundations collapsed.
Conditions on completed sections of the line were so bad that trains
had to go extremely slowly and derailments were frequent. One
117-mile (188-km) section between Tayshet and Tynda that opened early
took eight hours to traverse. With the tunnels also proving far more
difficult to dig out than expected, the opening of the line was inevitably
delayed: the 10-year target had always been a fantasy. The 9-mile
(15-km) Severomuysky Tunnel, east of the lake, caused almost
insuperable problems. When digging began in 1977, water from an
underground lake flooded it. Although an ingenious solution was
eventually found—liquid nitrogen was injected into the tunnel walls,
GLORY TO THE CONSTRUCTORS OF BAM RAILWAY!

Brezhnev’s decision to finish building the BAM in the 1970s
was a monumental propaganda exercise, intended to inspire
a new generation of workers with the ideals of Communism
and gain their support for the regime.
freezing the water while the tunnel was lined with a concrete shell—it
took 26 years to complete. In the meantime, two very steep bypasses
were built, both adding considerably to the eventual journey time.
Nevertheless, the Communist authorities—intent on using the line for
propaganda purposes—stuck to the 1984 opening date with a ceremony
that featured the hammering fast of a golden spike to set the final rail. It
was a complete sham. No foreign journalists were invited, as it would
have been obvious that the line was far from complete.
In the end, the BAM was officially opened three times. Brezhnev
had died in 1982, but Mikhail Gorbachev, who succeeded him in 1985,
continued with the program. It was by then soaking up one percent of
the nation’s total annual GDP. Seven years after the first ceremony,
Gorbachev announced that the line was open and boasted that it would
form a new link between Russia and Japan. Even then, the intractable
Severomuysky Tunnel was still not complete and several sections could
only accommodate slow trains used to supply materials for constructing
the line. Russia’s post-Soviet president Vladimir Putin announced the
line’s completion in 2001, and the tunnel finally opened in 2003.
The BAM has not lived up to Brezhnev’s expectations. The promise

of opening up a vast agricultural region was always a delusion, since
the Siberian climate is so harsh. It did not relieve pressure on the
Trans-Siberian, since it is the section west of the junction at Tayshet,
which is shared with the BAM, that is under greatest pressure. Nor
has it provided a practical alternative route between Asia and Europe.
Just as the Trans-Siberian contributed to the downfall of the Czarist
regime, the BAM and the excessive resources devoted to it helped to
bring down Communism. Most of the half a million Komsomol
volunteers and other workers who built the line returned to their home
towns deeply sceptical of the ideals of Communism and its grand
projects. Indeed, many were infuriated that the cars and housing they
had been promised were denied to them, a failure that led to
demonstrations in the post-Soviet era, with ex-BAM workers
demanding that their vouchers for volunteering be redeemed.
Far from carrying people to the promised land of a 21st-century
future, as the slogans had promised, the BAM clearly went nowhere.
The BAM became, in the Soviet era, the butt of popular jokes,
symbolizing failure and the powerlessness of the Soviet leaders. As
Christopher J. Ward wrote in Brezhnev’s Folly, a history of the line:
A FREIGHT TRAIN THUNDERS THROUGH SIBERIA

BAM trains pass through the virtually uninhabited snowy
wilderness of northern Siberia. Passengers are few, but
container traffic is gradually increasing.
By repeating ad nauseam claims of BAM’s economic, social, and cultural

significance, the Komsomol, the Communist Party, and the Soviet
government held an unwavering belief that the USSR’s youth needed
this message to avoid a loss of collective faith. Ironically, however, the
realities of the railway helped to intensify such a loss of faith in the Soviet
political and economic system in general.
Today, however, there are a few signs that the railroad may have been
worth at least some of the effort. Russian Railroads, the state-owned
company, plans to increase container traffic on the line, which is now
carrying more minerals from Siberian mines too, and there has been
further recent investment, including the construction of the
Kuznetsovsky Tunnel, at a cost of $9million for less than 2½ miles
(4km), to give better access to the Pacific, as well as improvement of
parts of the line that were slow due to steep grades. However, the BAM
will still go down in history as one of the craziest civil engineering
projects ever attempted and forever be known as “Brezhnev’s folly”.
GIANT FREIGHT TRAINS

Freight trains are the most energy-efficient
form of transportation for moving large
quantities of goods over long distances. The
biggest ever recorded—which took iron
ore from a mine in Western Australia in
2001—was over 4½ miles (7.3km)long.
Railroads Lost and Found
A LMOST AS SOON AS THE RAILROADS WERE BUILT,

sections started to become redundant and were closed. Some
lines, built by railroad companies to meet a need that turned out
not to exist, were never profitable and were soon abandoned; others,
built to serve a particular mine or factory, lost their purpose when
the works in question closed. The rapid demise of some superfluous
early railroads was inevitable. In Britain, 200 miles (320km) of track
had already closed by World War I, either because the lines were
never viable or because of competition from rival routes. The first
significant closure was the 17-mile (27-km) line between Chesterford
and Six Mile Bottom in Cambridgeshire, built by the Newmarket
and Chesterford Railway. It was closed in 1851 after a more direct
route was created. Unusually, the line closed outright rather than
being kept open as a freight route, a profitable alternative for many
early lines. Other countries simply built too many railroads. France
had more railroads than it needed, thanks to government support
for railroad construction in the 1860s, and many of the lines did not
survive into the 20th century. Ireland, despite enduring the terrible
famine of the 1840s that resulted in the death and emigration of
3 million people, built a network of lines that never made economic
sense, given the country’s sparse population. At the 1920s peak, it
boasted 3,440 miles (5,540km) of railroads serving a population of
4 million. It was hardly surprising much of this network closed in
the 1930s, especially as automobile use increased.
In a way, it was remarkable that more lines did not close in this
period, one reason being that railroad companies had to seek
government permission to close lines in many countries, including
the US and Britain. Permission was rarely granted since terminating
a service was inevitably unpopular and attracted negative publicity
for politicians, meaning that many little-used lines remained open.
In Britain, an 1844 Act required railroads to run at least one service a
day to serve poorer travelers. This resulted in a phenomenon known
as “parliamentary trains,” with companies operating the minimum
number of trains necessary to circumvent the costs of closure. Some
of these “ghost trains” run to this day. Even rather hopeless lines
could be kept open to avoid controversy. Renowned chronicler of the
R A I LROA DS LOST A N D FOU N D 341
Victorian railways Jack Simmons wrote of the Bishop’s Castle Railway

in mid-Wales, for example, which became insolvent five years after its
completion in 1861 and yet remained in operation until 1935.
Relatively few railroads closed around the world in the interwar
period. In part this was because of local opposition to closure, as the
railroads were now an established form of public transportation—
usually the only one until the advent of buses. Railroad companies
were reluctant to sanction closures too, as it was hard for them to
predict the effect of closing branch lines on the network as a whole.
Railroad economics are complex, and managers had to determine
whether passengers on a branch line would continue to use the
system if their local service was no longer provided before deciding if
the revenue they contributed overall made it worth keeping an
unprofitable branch line open. This is a continuing conundrum.
In Britain, which boasted over 20,000 miles (32,000km) of railroads at
their peak before World War I, there were few closures in this period,
despite growing competition from buses and automobiles. Just 240 miles
(386km) of track were shut and another 1,000 miles (1,600km) restricted
to freight services. Only the most extreme cases succumbed: the
Invergarry and Fort Augustus branch line in the Scottish Highlands,
which was completed in 1903 but never reached Inverness as intended,
was closed in 1933 because it was carrying only six people per day.
Closures remained the exception, however, until after World War II.
In the US, one type of train suffered major closures in the interwar
years. This was the interurban (see pp.56–57), an extended railroad
system that linked neighboring towns on tracks alongside roads. Built
cheaply, they sprang up across the nation in the 1910s, usually operating
a single car, akin to a bus on tracks. At their peak in 1913, these crude
railroads covered 15,000 miles (24,000km), but they were badly hit by
competition from automobiles. Closures started immediately after
World War I and accelerated in
the Depression after 1929, THE LENGTH OF US RAIL
meaning most interurban lines TRACK CLOSED BETWEEN
had a lifespan of barely 20–30 1916 AND THE PRESENT DAY
years—very short for the cost of
the infrastructure. A remarkable
6,350 miles (10,250km) were
abandoned in the early 1930s,
160,000miles
and by the end of World War II (258,000 km)
only a few lines survived. All but a handful had shut by 1960. As George
Hilton and John Due, authors of The Electric Interurban Railways in America,
put it: “the interurbans… never enjoyed a prolonged period of
prosperity… they played out their life cycle in a shorter period than
any other important American industry.”
In almost every country with a significant railroad system, there
were line closures in the postwar period, and the US was no exception,
closing lines in great numbers. Major railroad companies realized their
profits would now come from freight rather than passengers, given the
growing competition for suburban journeys from automobiles and for
long-distance travel from planes. Closures required permission from
the Interstate Commerce Commission, the federal agency that regulated
the railroads. By the early 1960s, all the main companies were petitioning
the commission to close lines, and by the end of the decade there was a
veritable stampede to end passenger services. Many companies used
subterfuge to force the commission’s hand, using old rolling stock,
reducing services, and even demolishing stations to make lines appear
uneconomic. Once permission to close was forthcoming, the companies
were ruthless about implementing closure. So eager were they to get out
of the passenger business, they stopped trains from running the minute
authorization came through—so commuters of the Chicago Aurora
and Elgin Railroad who had taken the train into town on the day closure
was confirmed had to make their own way home. The Louisville and
Nashville Railroad dumped its last 14 passengers in Birmingham,
Alabama, 400 miles (645km) short of their destination; only after protests
was a bus provided to get them to their final destination.
The pace of US closures became so frantic that the government
intervened, creating the state-owned and subsidized railroad company
Amtrak in 1971 to safeguard the remaining passenger services. It is an
irony that the US, which tends to eschew state intervention, still has a
nationalized railroad system. Although it went from a peak of 254,000
miles (410,000km) in 1916 to 94,000 miles (152,000km) today, it is still the
biggest railroad system in the world, although it is mainly used for
freight. Amtrak carries a mere 30 million passengers annually,
compared with roughly 1.2 billion in Britain and 1.1 billion in France,
both countries with far smaller populations.
In Britain, pressure to close lines came to a head in 1963 with the
setting out of a radical plan by the chairman of the British Railways
Board, Richard Beeching. He found that the railroad network was very
unbalanced, with half of the country’s

18,000 miles (29,000km) of track carrying
only 4 percent of passengers. His solution
was radical. The now infamous Beeching
Report, known by its detractors as
Beeching’s Axe, resulted in the closure of
5,000 miles (8,000km) of track and a third
of the 7,000 stations. While many lines that
were clearly not viable were axed, some
major routes were terminated too—
subsequently a great cause of regret.
In other countries, closures were
carried out incrementally, less radically THE BEECHING REPORT
than in the US and more slowly than in Richard Beeching, author of the
report that drastically reduced
Britain. France lost half of its 37,000-mile Britain’s railroad network, became
(59,000-km) network in closures that a hate figure for railroad advocates.
started in the 1930s until, to protect the
remaining lines, the government nationalized the system in 1938. In
Eastern Europe, Communist regimes retained their rail systems
more-or-less intact as few people could afford cars, but extensive
closures took place after the Iron Curtain fell in 1989. However, in
recent years the closure process has been reversed in some countries
and railroad mileage has increased, with the reopening of mothballed
lines and the construction of new, principally high-speed lines.
All these closures had one surprising, beneficial side effect—the
creation of a preserved railroads industry based on steam trains.
Countries where steam trains had until recently remained in service,
including Poland, China, and India, attracted enthusiasts; in other
countries, volunteers preserved sections of old lines and now operate
tourist services on them. The first railroad in the world to be preserved
as a heritage railroad was the British Talyllyn Railway, a 7-mile (4-km)
“Beeching’s report marked

the end of our romance with the
train, and the rise of the car”
IAN HISLOP, EDITOR OF PRIVATE EYE AND RAILROAD ENTHUSIAST
narrow-gauge railroad opened in 1866 to carry slate down a Welsh

valley from quarries to the coast. When its closure was announced in
1951, a group of volunteers kept the line open. The railroad heritage
movement has spread around the world since then, and some of these
lines even operate regular services that connect with the main line. Old
lines are being reopened all the time, among them the Welsh Highland
Railway, which reopened in 2011 and now, together with the Ffestiniog
Railway, provides an 50-mile (80-km) route across north Wales. In
France, too, there are around a hundred such preserved lines, covering
750 miles (1,200km) of track. These railroads attract 3 million visitors a
year, and include a section of 2-ft (60-cm) narrow-gauge lines used on
the Somme front in World War I (see pp.278–87). The US also has a big
preservation movement. Its most scenic railroad is the Durango and
Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, a 45-mile (73-km) line through
Colorado. The route was built in 1881–82 by the Denver and Rio Grande
Railroad to exploit silver and gold mines in the San Juan Mountains.
The remaining section is one of the few in the US that has seen
continuous use of steam locomotives since the 19th century.
Some of the most spectacular railroads in the world have been
brought back into use after being abandoned. In Ecuador, a 280-mile
(450-km) line between the port city of Guayaquil and the highland
capital, Quito, has been restored and its steam locomotives are now a
major tourist attraction, recreating one of the greatest rail journeys
in the world. Thanks to these preserved railroads and the volunteers
who work on them, the steam engine will remain a source of
admiration for generations to come.
DURANGO AND SILVERTON RAILROAD

The Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad
owes its preservation in part to its Hollywood success:
it has featured in numerous movies, among them
Viva Zapata and Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid.
WHITE PASS AND YUKON RAILROAD

Built in 1898 during the Klondike Gold
Rush, the WP&YR suspended operations
in 1982, when the mines closed, but was
resurrected as a tourist route from Skagway,
Alaska, to Carcross, Yukon, Canada in 1988.
Vive le Channel Tunnel
T HE OPENING OF A TUNNEL LINKING Britain and France in

1994 was the culmination of more than 180 years of debates,
discussions, and delays. The first proposal for a tunnel under the
English Channel (although not a rail one) had been made as far back as
1802, by one of Napoleon’s engineers. At that time, the journey from
London to Paris took about four days (or several weeks if the Channel
winds were unfavorable) but the British military, politicians, and even
the press were not sold on the idea of a tunnel, fearing that it would
leave the island nation vulnerable to attack. Over the next half century,
various plans were proposed, on both sides of the Channel, but they
came to nothing. The first serious attempt at digging a rail tunnel was
promoted by a Victorian entrepreneur, Sir Edward Watkin, in 1881.
Exploratory tunnels were dug at Dover in England and Sangatte in
France, but work was abandoned in 1882, largely due to political
pressure from the still-unconvinced British.
By the early 20th century, more advanced tunneling machines and
the development of electric traction had made the idea of a rail tunnel
a more realistic proposition. However, by this time a fit of xenophobic
hysteria had seized most of the British military establishment, which
was adamant that foreign powers would use the tunnel as a corridor for
invasion. In fact, Marshal Foch, the Allies’ Supreme Commander in the
last year of World War I, declared that a tunnel could have shortened
the conflict by two years. Nevertheless, these delays in building a tunnel
simply meant that the competition kept on speeding up. By 1852, the
EARLY DESIGNS
This 1876 engraving shows plans for a single-
track rail tunnel under the English Channel.
VIVE LE CHANNEL TUNNEL 349
journey time between London and Paris had been reduced to 12 hours
by sea and rail, and 60 years later it took a mere 7 hours. In the 1930s, the
glamorous Flèche d’Or (Golden Arrow) train-ferry service reduced the
journey time to just over six and half hours and by that time there was
also a regular air service between Croydon, just outside London, and Le
Bourget, northeast of Paris.
Although military hysteria dissipated after the end of World War II
in 1945, progress on a tunnel remained slow, particularly at the British
end. In 1963, the British government finally endorsed the building of a
tunnel. By this time, the commercial outlook was promising as the
number of travelers from London to Paris was increasing steadily
(1 million per year in 1960 and 2.5 million by 1978). However, the
British were still rather lukewarm about the project and had not yet
agreed to a new rail line to link the tunnel to London and beyond.
British Rail suggested a variety of routes but each one was more
expensive than its predecessor. In the end, the cost of the new rail link
provided an excellent excuse for the government to cancel the project
in early 1975, just as tunneling was about to begin. This about-turn,
which was in fact necessitated by Britain’s perilous financial situation,
naturally infuriated the French and reinforced their suspicions that
Britain was not really serious about a Channel tunnel.
However, the idea for a tunnel refused to go away, and within four
years Sir Peter Parker, the chairman of British Rail, together with his
counterparts from the SNCF in France, had resurrected the project
by proposing a single-track tunnel—inevitably called the
“mousehole”—running “flights” of trains back and forth across the
Channel. This somewhat ramshackle idea did not progress, but the
principle of building a Channel tunnel received a boost from an
unlikely source—eurosceptic British Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher. The “Iron Lady” decided that a tunnel could proceed under
the Channel, as long as it was privately, not publicly, funded. Along
with French President FranÇois Mitterand, Thatcher set up a working
group and then invited bidders to submit their proposals. Thatcher
disliked railroads, so her natural preference was for a road-based, or
at least a “drive-through” concept—a bias she shared with
Mitterrand—but in the end an idea involving dual rail tunnels won
out. By the end of 1985, the Channel Tunnel Group/TransManche
Link, a consortium of five French and five British contractors plus five
banks, had been awarded the contract to build the tunnel.
The whole operation was still fiendishly complicated. It took two more
years for the Channel Tunnel Act, which officially rubber-stamped the
program, to pass through the British Parliament (although the French
procedure took mere days) and the world’s investment community was
by no means enthusiastic about the tunnel’s financial prospects.
Financial negotiations were hampered by the geographical spread of
the various banks involved and the sheer number of contractors
involved in the program made the construction process equally
complex. However, the balance of power between the interested parties
was transformed in early 1987 with the appointment of Alastair Morton
as full-time British joint chairman of Eurotunnel, the company that
actually held the contract to build the tunnel. During Morton’s nine
years at Eurotunnel he saved what was a fundamentally uneconomic
venture from disaster by dealing with the British government, the
contractors, and the 200 banks eventually involved. He also grappled
with British Rail and SNCF, who would be the main users (to add
further complexity, British Rail was being prepared for privatization at
the time). After protracted negotiations about the technology the
tunnel would use and the type of links the tunnel would provide, a
complicated international consortium was formed combining railroad
companies from France, Britain, and Belgium.
DIGGING UNDER THE SEA

Constructing the three tunnels
required the use of 11 enormous
tunnel boring machines (TBMs),
each more than 492ft (150m) long.
Tunneling commenced at long last in December 1987, when the

British started digging a service tunnel that would be used for
maintenance and emergencies. Starting with the service tunnel was
a good way of testing the tunneling conditions, foreshadowing any
geological or practical issues before work on the main rail tunnels
began. The French commenced their end of the service tunnel a
couple of months after the British and then, in June 1988, two rail
tunnels were started simultaneously from both sides. Thus the
Channel Tunnel was, and remains, in fact three tunnels—two rail
tunnels separated by a service tunnel. It was the biggest engineering
project ever undertaken by France or Britain, requiring 15,000 workers
at its peak. However, progress was slower than predicted, causing
costs to spiral. In fact, there were no fewer than three major financial
crises while the tunnel was under construction and the cost of the
project exceeded its budget by more than 80 percent. Nevertheless, on
December 4, 1990, the two tunneling teams finally shook hands mid-
Channel. Amazingly, the tunnels were only 13in (330mm) out of
alignment, despite each traveling 9 miles (15km) from opposite ends.
Completing the tunnels was just the beginning of the process,
however. As one observer put it: “turning the tunnels into a piece of
complex, safe, and sophisticated transportation infrastructure was to
prove an altogether different challenge,” involving as it did power

supply, lighting, ventilation, communication, maintenance
provision, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The trains
themselves were also incredibly complex, as they had to cope with
different power supplies and signaling systems not just in Britain
and France, but also in Belgium, where some trains would terminate.
Safety fears also meant that every piece of equipment had to receive
a separate operating certificate for each country, at an estimated
cost of over $645 million, with a further $322 million lost in the
resulting delays. However, the stringent safety requirements have
proved their worth: there have been only three serious fires in the
Channel Tunnel—all started on shuttles carrying trucks—that
closed the Tunnel for short periods, but caused no loss of life.
In the end the tunnel was delayed by a year, far less than many
much smaller projects. The contractors handed over the project to
Eurotunnel in December 1993, and the “Chunnel”—as it was
nicknamed—was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II and
President Mitterand in May 1994. Freight trains began traveling
through the Tunnel a month later and rail passengers were
welcomed in November, on the service now known as Eurostar. On
December 22, 1994, the Channel Tunnel achieved a world first with
the inaugural car shuttle service, known as Eurotunnel Le Shuttle,
from Folkestone to Calais.
However, in one major respect the project was incomplete when
the Channel Tunnel opened in 1994. Providing a fast line to the
tunnel was relatively easy for the French, since all it took was
building a branch line to Calais from their new fast line from Paris
to Lille and Brussels. By contrast, neither British Rail nor the British
government could overcome the difficulties inherent in building an
entirely new line from London to Folkestone. British Rail had never
designed a new railroad line, and
NUMBER OF TONS OF all the routes it suggested
SPOIL REMOVED DURING threatened the rich heartland of
TUNNELING Kent, as well as numerous marginal
constituencies in South East
11,023,000
(10,000,000 TONNES)
London. As a result, the Eurostar
trains on the British side of the
tunnel had to travel along tortuous,
winding tracks that had been laid a
EUROSTAR
When the Channel Tunnel
opened, trains on the
French side could travel up
to 186mph (300kph). On the
British side, the top speed
was only 100mph (160kph).
century earlier. The rails

were strengthened and
the route was provided
with new signals and
upgraded power supplies, but still, the trains were noticeably much
slower in England than in France.
It took until 1996 before work began on a high-speed line for the
British part of the route—a line now called High Speed 1 (HS1). Even
when work finally began, it was far from straightforward. The project
was beset with financial and construction problems. Excavation of the
route revealed many ancient relics, which thrilled archaeologists, but
caused further delays. Eventually, the first section of the high-speed
route through Kent opened in 2003, reducing the journey time
between London and Paris by 20 minutes.
The second section of the route, from the North Downs in Kent to a
new terminal at St. Pancras station in London, was an even bigger
engineering problem. It involved tunneling under the Thames River,
navigating marshes in east London, building an enormous new station
at Stratford, and rebuilding St. Pancras station. The biggest headache,
however, was constructing an 11-mile (18-km) tunnel to St. Pancras that
would avoid the existing sewers, main railway lines, and underground
system. Finally, on November 13, 2007, the link was finished, and
Eurostar transferred its passenger services from Waterloo to St. Pancras.
The switch of terminals marked an historic moment, linking Britain’s
first high-speed line to its equivalent in Europe and finally completing
the Channel Tunnel project more than 200 years after it had first
been proposed. It is the world’s longest undersea rail tunnel—23½ miles
(37.9km) of the 31⅜-mile (50.4-km) tunnel runs under the Channel—
and has been described by the American Society of Civil Engineers as
“One of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.”
Building Tunnels
Tunneling is the most costly and labor-intensive of
all engineering enterprises and, in the early days of the
The tunnel’s girth is
railroads, it was also the most dangerous. Working long determined by the
shifts lit by candlelight in cramped conditions, workers cutting wheel’s
diameter— 26–29ft
risked serious injury or loss of life as they burrowed (8–9m) for the
Channel Tunnel
underground using only basic tools. From the mid-19th
century their picks, hand-drills, and explosives were
gradually replaced by tunnel-boring machines (TBMs),
the first of which was used after 1862 to dig the Fréjus
Rail Tunnel beneath the Alps (see p.106). Since then,
strict safety regulations have reduced risks
considerably, and the introduction of computer
control has increased the machines’ efficiency.
Immersed tunnels
Suitable for routes that cross shallow
bodies of water, immersed tunnels
on the seabed are a cost-effective
alternative to boring beneath it. The
first tunnel to be built in this way
was the Bay Area Rapid Transit
(BART) tunnel in San Francisco in
the late 1960s. Sections of the tunnel
are floated to the tunnel site, sunk
into a precut trench on the seabed,
and secured with layers of gravel,
concrete, and backfill.
BART TUNNEL SECTION UNDER CONSTRUCTION
BUILDING TUNNELS 355
TUNNEL-BORING MACHINE (TBM)

CHANNEL TUNNEL, c.1990s
Also known as “moles,” TBMs are equipped How it works
with different cutting devices according to TBMs consist of several connected
the geology of the tunneling area, from soft
clay to mixed earth and shale or bare rock. systems that are operated in different
The Channel Tunnel TBMs that cut through phases of construction to bore and line
chalk marl under the English Channel to the tunnel, lay the rails, and convey
link Britain and France (see pp.348–53) were waste material away from the site. The
also designed to deal with high water pressure. cutting wheel can be up to 63ft (19.3m)
in diameter, while the TBM apparatus
The cutting wheel can be as much as 490ft (150m) in length.
rotates as hydraulic
rams drive the Mechanized segment
The 11 feeder moves concrete
machine forward Channel Tunnel rings into position
TBMs—each
weighing
1,210 tons
(1,100 tonnes)—
were assembled
on site
Cutting wheel Screw-conveyor

rotates, gouging carries debris away
material from face from tunnel site
STEP 1: TUNNELING PHASE

During the tunneling phase, the rotating
cutting wheel is pressed into the tunnel
face at a predetermined rate. Debris is
transported away from the cutting face
by a screw conveyor (for shale or rock,
pictured here) or a series of pressurized
pipes (for earth or clay).
Material is analyzed
to verify stability
of tunneling area
Tunnel debris Concrete rings are

supports cutting cemented together
wheel and tunnel face to line the tunnel
STEP 2: RING-BUILDING PHASE

The cutting apparatus stops to allow
the ring-building phase to commence
—the installation of concrete rings,
which provide a watertight and strengthening
lining for the tunnel. The rings are
cast above ground and moved to the
construction site via rail.
Switzerland: the Best

of the Best
S WITZERLAND JOINED THE RAILROAD AGE relatively late,

but, as in other countries such as Germany, the railroads quickly
became a unifying force and a vital part of the nation’s prosperity. So
much so that today Switzerland can lay claim to having one of the
most efficient and well-used railroad networks in the world.
Surrounded by mountains and beset by cold temperatures and
copious snowfall in the winter, Switzerland did not seem like fertile
territory for the iron road. Moreover, it did not even become a unified
nation until 1848, following a brief civil war between the Protestant and
Catholic cantons (states). The new Switzerland adopted a federal state
system, similar to that of the US, and the new government decided that
the country needed a proper, planned railroad system. So, in 1850, two
British engineers, Robert Stephenson and Henry Swinburne, were asked
to oversee the development of a rail network. The pair suggested a basic,
east-to-west line along the valleys between Geneva and Zürich, plus
another line from Basel to Lucerne. Rather oddly though, the capital,
Bern, was to be on a branch line. The cantons built these early lines,
often with foreign investment and contractors. Stephenson and
Swinburne’s influence also meant that the Swiss adopted the standard
gauge (4ft 8½in/1,435mm) and instituted British-style left-hand running
on double-track lines, both of which are still used today.
The iron road’s progress in Switzerland remained slow. Unlike most
European countries, where the demands of traditional heavy industries
such as mining or agriculture fueled railroad expansion, it was tourism
that eventually became the catalyst for further development in
Switzerland. From the mid-19th century, increasing numbers of visitors
flocked to resorts in the scenic Alps and lakes. However, when pioneering
travel agent Thomas Cook took his first tour party to Switzerland in
1863, there was still barely 400 miles (650km) of railroad in the whole
country. It was clear that the country’s existing rail network could not
cope with the demands of the tourist industry.
So, by the last third of the 19th century, the Swiss federal
government was eager to see its railroads develop more rapidly.
Furthermore, the country’s location in the center of Europe made
SWITZERLAND: THE BEST OF THE BEST 357
an efficient railway network in Switzerland highly desirable for its

neighbors, too. They were eager to traverse Swiss territory to create
both passenger and freight links across Europe, and were happy to
invest in Swiss railroads to make that possible. A treaty between
Switzerland, Germany, and Italy in 1869 agreed to a strategic link
under the Gotthard Pass in the Alps. Completed in 1882, the
Gotthard Tunnel (see pp.106–107) linked not just the cantons of Uri
and Ticino, but also provided a valuable north–south route between
Germany and Italy; the Simplon Tunnel (see pp.106–107), opened in
1906, also linked Switzerland to Italy.
Meanwhile, the railroads continued to spread across the
country, including Europe’s first rack railroad (see pp.108–109),
which opened in 1871. Built to take tourists up the Rigi
Mountain above Lake Lucerne, it used a rack-and-pinion system
developed by Swiss engineer Niklaus Riggenbach. Three years
later, the first 3ft 3⅜in- (1m-) gauge line opened from Lausanne
to Bercher via Echallens, although this was actually built to
serve an agricultural area rather than the tourist industry. By
adopting a narrower gauge in less accessible or less populous areas,
lines could be built much more economically, allowing railroads
(and also light rail) to spread into the steepest and most remote
corners of Switzerland.
SPANISH BUN RAILROAD

The first Swiss railroad linked Zurich and Baden in 1847.
It was nicknamed Spanischbrötlibahn (“Spanish Bun
Railroad”) because affluent Zurich bankers used it to
send their servants to fetch Baden’s specialty buns.
After the initial railroad boom of the late 19th

century, some speculative railroads went bust and
many Swiss people became disenchanted with
their railroads being largely owned and operated
for the benefit of foreign shareholders.
Consequently, in 1898 a referendum on
nationalizing the railroads led to the formation of
the Swiss Federal Railways in 1902 (officially known
as SBB-CFF-FFS). Over the next few years, the SBB-
CFF-FFS acquired approximately 50 percent of the
national trackage and embarked on a program to
electrify the whole network. Given the country’s
GOTTHARD LINE lack of coal, the Swiss were early adopters of
The trans-Alpine Gotthard electric traction: the first electrically powered
Railway proudly became
electrified in 1922. railroad in Switzerland was a 3-ft 3⅜-in (1-m) gauge
line between Montreux and Chillon in 1888. The
Simplon Tunnel was also electrified from the start, and electric
traction was used, too, for the Jungfraubahn, completed in 1912.
The two world wars accelerated the electrification process in
Switzerland: during World War I coal shortages caused widespread travel
disruption, while World War II affected Switzerland even more, despite
its neutrality. The tourist trade on which many railroads depended
dried up, and some lines closed in the aftermath of the wars. However,
the postwar government soon realized the value of Switzerland’s
transportation infrastructure and began to invest in the railroads, so
much so that by 1960 the entire railroad network in Switzerland was
electric, making it the first country in the world to achieve this milestone.
During the latter half of the 20th century, car and semitruck traffic
in Switzerland grew inexorably, as it did elsewhere. With the building of
modern highways through and under the Alps, much freight that was
once rail-borne transferred to the road. By the 1980s, however, the Swiss
public was increasingly concerned about the environmental damage
caused by heavy semitrucks. This eventually led to two major national
referendums on the railroads. The first, in 1987, led to the Bahn 2000
project, which aimed to bring the Swiss rail network into the 21st
century. This initiative resulted in the improvement of many lines and
the construction of sections of high-speed track that are an integrated
part of the existing infrastructure rather than, as in many other
countries, entirely separate. A second referendum in 1992 approved, by a
IN THE SHADOW OF THE ALPS
The Matterhorn-Gotthard-Bahn (MGB)
is a narrow-gauge Alpine railroad. This
branch line at Andermatt links to the
northern end of the Gotthard rail tunnel.
massive majority, a project called “AlpTransit” that regulated the

number and capacity of semitrucks allowed across the Alps. It prioritized
improvements to the rail infrastructure over road-building, intending
freight to be transferred onto the trans-Alpine railroads. To facilitate
this plan two new railroad tunnels were proposed—the 21-mile (34-km)
Lötschberg Base Tunnel, which opened in 2007, and the 38-mile (61-km)
Gotthard Base Tunnel, which is due to be completed 2016.
The 1980s also saw the introduction of an impressive integrated
national transportation schedule in Switzerland, coordinating rail,
bus, and trolley services. It means that almost every station in
Switzerland has at least an hourly rail service that links to a national
timetable plan, giving regular connections with all other routes
and modes of transportation. Oddly, although the transportation
services are coordinated by the government, its national rail
company, SBB-CFF-FFS, owns just under 2,000 miles (3,200km) of
track, with the remaining 1,200 miles (750km) being operated by
around 80 different private or seminationalized companies. Despite
this, the Swiss railroad system is far more streamlined and has far
less duplication than many other networks around the world,
where competition between different companies resulted in
unnecessary or inefficient lines being built.
Historically, the Swiss electorate, and generally their politicians, have
been far more conscious of the implications of their public transportation
than most other nations. For example, the standard gauge rail network
is the core of a wider transportation system in Switzerland into which
local trains (often 3-ft 3⅜-in gauge/1-m), trolleys, and buses link at all
stations. Despite this integrated network,
THE HEIGHT ABOVE SEA the Swiss still have one of the highest rates
LEVEL OF JUNGFRAUJOCH of automobile ownership per capita (about
STATION IN THE ALPS one for every two people), but they use
them far less. In fact, Swiss people make
11,332FT more journeys via railroad than any other

nation, apart from Japan. On average, the
Swiss travel 1,060 miles (1,706km) per
(3,454 M) person annually by rail, while the Japanese
travel 1,200 miles (1,900km). (The Swiss
THE HIGHEST actually make more individual journeys
than the Japanese, but these journeys are
IN EUROPE shorter.) Given that Japan is a far bigger
T H E SW I S S R A I L N ET WOR K
Major city GERMANY
City/town
Main line Schaffhausen
Secondary line Basel
Tunnel
National St. Gallen
boundary Delémont ZÜRICH
LIECHTENSTEIN
Biel Zug
La Chaux-de-Fonds AUSTRIA
Luzern
Sargans
FRANCE BERN Chur
Interlaken
Lausanne
Montreux Brig
Poschiavo
Locarno
Bellinzona
GENEVA
Martigny
Chiasso
ITALY
country with a very dense population, Switzerland’s record is all the

more remarkable. The key to that success is that the rail network is part
of a genuinely integrated public transportation system designed to make
nonmotorized travel easier and more efficient for its citizens. Reliability
and punctuality have proved crucial, too, supported by consistent
government investment in the railroads. Not only is the rail network
extensive and well managed, but the cost of rail travel is also highly
competitive. In addition to the usual range of discounted season and
zonal tickets, it is possible to purchase a national, all-modes (rail, bus,
trolley, boat) travel card that costs around $5,630 (£3,500) per year—a
bargain by the standards of many other countries.
Today, a growing Swiss population is placing the rail network
under increasing strain and the railroads require considerable
investment to keep pace with demand. The Swiss, however, seem up
to the task: in ZÜrich, for example, an expensive series of tunnels has
been planned to allow trains to pass through the city more quickly
and to link expanding suburbs. Railroads, it seems, have become
ingrained in the culture and success of Switzerland, and the
importance of the iron road shows no signs of waning.
SIGNATURE STRUCTURE
The Glacier Express crosses the imposing
Landwasser Viaduct, in Graubunden,
Switzerland, along the Albula railroad.
The limestone bridge rises 213ft (65m)
above the Landwasser River.
Going Faster: Bullet Trains

and High-speed Lines
B Y THE 1960S, THE RAILROADS were competing against

automobiles, semitrucks, and airplanes. Politicians and civil servants
thought the railroad age was coming to an end—an outmoded form of
travel that belonged to the 19th rather than the late 20th century—and
governments chose to invest in highways and roads that provided the
convenience of door-to-door travel instead. Car ownership soared,
semitrucks started hauling freight, and commercial flights took off,
heralding the dawn of the jet age. To counter these trends, railroad
services needed modernization. It was the Japanese who led the way
with the groundbreaking Shinkansen (“new mainline”), known in the
West as the bullet train. It started a trend for high-speed railroads that
would spread—albeit rather slowly—around the world.
Japan’s geography and pattern of settlement contributed to the
genesis of the bullet train, as it had to the development of Japan’s railroads
in the first place. The country consists of four main islands, but less than
a fifth of the land mass is habitable, so most of the population of 126
million is confined to a relatively small part of the country. It was this
density of population in lowland regions that created the right conditions
for high-speed rail development. In fact, while the high-speed aspect of
the Shinkansen is emphasized, the new lines evolved mainly because the
existing network was running out of capacity.
Japan came late to the railroad age. The island state had shunned the
rest of the world until 1868, when the new Meiji administration sought
to modernize the country, opening its doors to the railroads. The first
line, which covered the 18 miles (29km) between Tokyo and Yokohoma,
opened in 1872, and the Japanese adopted trains with enthusiasm. The
engineers of the line used the narrow gauge of 3ft 6in (1,067mm), the
same as in New Zealand as the islands had similar topographies. Later
plans to convert to standard gauge to increase traffic on the railroads
were opposed by military powers; instead, lines were extended.
The railroads boomed in the final few years of the 19th century, and
by 1907 there were nearly 4,500 miles (7,250km) of railroad in operation,
all owned by the state-run Japanese Imperial Railways. Development
continued steadily between the first and second world wars. By 1945, the
G OI NG FA S T E R : BU L L E T T R A I N S A N D H IGH - S P E E D L I N E S 365
INAUGURATION OF THE TOKAIDO SHINKANSEN

The Tokaido Shinkansen was launched in Tokyo just in
time for the 1964 Olympics. The bullet train reduced the
journey time between Tokyo and Osaka to 4 hours and
became the prototype for high-speed trains worldwide.
total mileage had reached 16,000 miles (26,000km), nearly a quarter of

which was owned privately, with the rest under the control of the
renamed Japanese National Railways.
By the 1930s, Japan’s first trunk route, the Tokaido line, which linked
Tokyo with a series of major cities that included Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka,
and Kobe, was already becoming heavily congested. An entirely new
route between Tokyo and Osaka was proposed that would cover the 400-
mile (640-km) journey in four hours—an unheard-of speed for a
railroad at the time. Work started in 1941, but was more or less abandoned
after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor triggered the Pacific War.
The Japanese economy took some time to recover from defeat in the
war, but by the mid-1950s the Tokaido line was again running at capacity
and the plan for the Tokaido Shinkansen was revived. Shinji Sogō, the
president of the state-run railroads, lobbied hard to persuade the
government that the railroad line would be viable, as at the time it
seemed that cars and planes would make railroads redundant. It was the
need for extra train routes that stimulated the Shinkansen’s development,
but to compete with cars it was built on highway principles, with few
stops and fast journey times. The high speed was a by-product of the
need for capacity rather than an end in itself—a principle that applied to
most high-speed systems around the world. Of course, the high-speed
PASSING MOUNT FUJI

In what has become an iconic image of the
meeting of the modern and the ancient
world in Japan, the Shinkansen bullet train
passes in front of snow-capped Mount Fuji.
aspect helped to attract passengers away from their cars, and also made
it possible for rail to compete with aviation over distances of up to 500
miles (800km), thanks to its city-center-to-city-center routing.
It was decided that Japan’s new line would carry only fast electric
passenger trains and would use the standard 4ft 8½in (1,435mm) gauge
to provide greater capacity and enable use of technology from other
railroads. Despite difficult terrain and cost overruns—the eventual cost
of 380 billion yen (around $1.1 billion at the time) was twice the original
budget—the line was completed five years after work started in 1959. By
contemporary high-speed standards, the line was slow, with an average
speed of 130mph (209kph), but thanks to its dedicated track and limited
stops the journey time was radically reduced. While the conventional
express took 6 hours and 40 minutes between the two main cities, Tokyo
and Osaka, the Shinkansen made the trip in 4 hours when it started
operating just before the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. The Shinkansen changed
business patterns too, by making day trips between Tokyo and Osaka
possible. Shinji Sogō’s faith in the railroad was fully justified. An
immediate success, the service carried 100 million passengers in less
than three years; by 1976, it had carried one billion. Today, the Tokaido
Shinkansen carries 143 million passengers annually.
It was not an easy ride, however. The service suffered teething pains,
including discomfort to passengers’ ears when trains crossed in the
tunnels that accounted for 45 miles (72km) of the route, and a more
embarrassing problem: the air currents generated in the tunnels blew
water up from the toilet bowls, much to the users’ discomfiture.
Eventually, it was decided to pressurize the trains to solve these problems,
which proved expensive but was successful. Interestingly, despite
the Shinkansen’s popularity, Japanese
NUMBER OF PASSENGERS National Railways faced opposition to
CARRIED BY BULLET building the network it had envisaged.
TRAINS EACH YEAR Noise and cost were both concerns,
but eventually, in the 1970s, several
325 MILLION
new lines as well as extensions to the
Tokaido line were built. Today, there is
a network of 2,200 miles (3,540km).
The fastest trains on the Sanyo line
travel at 186mph (300kph), a speed that
has become the norm across the world
for high-speed lines.
JA PA N E SE H IGH- SPE ED R A I L N ET WOR K

Hachinohe
Major city
City/town Akita
Bullet train line
SEA OF JAPAN Yamagata

SENDAI
Niigata Fukushima
NIKKO
Nagano
HONSHU Utsunomiya
NAGOYA TOKYO
KYOTO Mt Fuji
HAKATA
HIROSHIMA
OSAKA
NAGASAKI
Kumamoto
KYUSHU
Kagoshima
Around the world, it was some years before another country followed
Japan’s lead. Although railroad managers were eager to increase speeds
from the 60–70mph (90–110kph) that was standard for express trains by
the 1960s, governments remained doubtful as to whether the “old
technology” of train travel was worth investing in. In Germany and
France, train speed trials took place, demonstrating that trains could
easily reach speeds of 124mph (200kph) for long periods, and attempts
were made to speed up services on existing lines. In France, the Paris–
Toulouse route was upgraded in 1966 to support 124mph (200kph)
running through improvements to tracks and signaling. In Britain, a
new diesel service branded InterCity 125 was introduced on routes from
London after 1976. However, all used existing lines, which limited their
speed as other, slower trains shared the tracks.
To avoid line-sharing, France decided in the 1970s to create a dedicated
bullet-style service called the Train à Grande Vitesse (TGV); like the Shinkansen,
the TGV has become a world-renowned brand. At the time, capacity on
the key Paris–Lyon route was reaching its limits and it was decided to
build a new line, separate from the existing railroad except at the city
entrances, where tracks were shared with conventional services. The
TGV uses the same gauge as regular trains so it can run

on high-speed and standard tracks for flexibility. The French had created
high-speed trains that had beaten the world record several times,
reaching an impressive 262mph (422kph) on an experimental track in
1969. Clearly, such speeds would only be possible on a dedicated track, so
in 1976, construction of the first Ligne à Grand Vitesse started. The Paris–
Lyon line was completed in 1981, when the first TGVs started running at
a top speed of 168 mph (270kph), later increased to 186mph (300kph). The
service was an instant success, challenging air travel between the two
cities. France embarked on a network of high-speed lines emanating
from Paris. The Est, which opened in 2007, operates at 200mph (320kph).
France’s high-speed network covered 1,185 miles (1,907km) in 2013,
but has now been surpassed in distance by Spain. In 2005, Spain
announced a plan to ensure that 90 percent of the population would live
within 30 miles (50km) of a station served by the Spanish Alta Velocidad
Española (AVE) network. Spain’s first high-speed line, between Madrid
and Seville, was completed in time for the Seville Expo ’92. It used
standard gauge as opposed to the 5-ft 6in (1,680mm) Iberian gauge used
by other Spanish services. This led to a technological development that
allows the latest high-speed trains to change gauge without stopping so
they can continue journeys off the high-speed network. By 2013, Spain
operated half a dozen routes out of Madrid and, with Barcelona also a
hub, a total of 1,285 miles (2,000km) of high-speed line had been opened,
with a further 684 miles (1,100km) under construction.
After France, Germany was the second country in Europe to develop
high-speed lines. It opted for a different model by creating high-speed
sections rather than whole new routes, so the trains switch frequently
between conventional and high-speed lines. Germany launched its
Intercity-Express (ICE) in 1991, operating at a top speed of 174mph
(280kph) on the Hannover–Würzburg high-speed railroad.
Since 2000, a number of new high-speed rail services have started
operating in East Asia. In South Korea, the Korea Train Express was
launched in 2004 along the Seoul–Busan corridor, linking the country’s
two biggest towns. It uses trains built by Alstom, the same company that
builds the TGV in France. Taiwan has a high-speed railroad running
more than 200 miles (322km) along the west coast of Taiwan, from the
national capital Taipei to the southern city of Kaohsiung, using
technology based primarily on Japan’s Shinkansen. The biggest network by
far, however, is in China (see pp.372–79).
TGV AND THALYS HIGH-SPEED TRAINS

Connecting France, Germany, and Benelux, TGV
and Thalys trains depart from stations in Paris
before joining dedicated high-speed lines.
Safety has been a major factor in the success of high-speed trains:

although there have been three major accidents involving high-speed
trains, none occurred at full speed on dedicated lines. In Germany in
1998, a wheel broke at 124mph (200kph) and came off the rails at a
bridge—resulting in the derailment and destruction of the full set of 16
cars and the death of 101 people. In China in 2011, due to a signaling
error, a train traveling at 62mph (100kph) hit a stationary train on a
viaduct, killing 40 people. At Santiago de Compostela in Spain in 2013, a
train came off the rails at 120mph (195kph) on a curve with a speed limit
of 50mph (80kph), and smashed into a concrete wall, killing 79 people.
Despite these accidents, the overall safety record of high-speed rail is
better than for any other form of transportation.
By 2013, there were nearly 10,000 miles (16,000km) of high-speed line
around the world, with plans for lines in countries including Ukraine,
Turkey, and Belarus. In the US, an 520-mile (837-km) line from San
Francisco to Los Angeles has been approved by the California state
government, but budget constraints and protests have delayed
construction. In Britain, the proposal for HS2, a 330-mile (530-km) high-
speed line network joining London with several major cities at a cost of
$82 billion has also met with fierce opposition. While some new plans
might be tinged with controversy, the advantages of high-speed rail are
uncontested, and its place in the future of transportation, is assured.
China, the New Pioneer
C HINA WAS PROBABLY THE ONLY COUNTRY in the world to

have joined the railroad age and then, briefly, to have left it again.
Despite this false start, China now boasts by far the most extensive
system of high-speed dedicated lines anywhere on the globe, a
network that China is bent on expanding to become the backbone of
the nation’s transportation infrastructure. China is also home to the
world’s highest railroad: the Qinghai–Tibet Railroad.
The first railroad line in China was built by Jardine, Matheson &
Co., a European-owned trading company looking to improve access
between Shanghai and the nearby port of Woosung. The line was just
10 miles (16km) long, but its construction in 1876 was mired in
controversy: the deeply conservative Chinese officialdom was
reluctant to allow the laying of railroads, fearing it would ruin the
livelihood of the vast numbers of those who carried goods for a living.
One Chinese official at the time, Yü Lien-yuan, worried that the
resulting unemployment would foment unrest:
several tens of millions, who earn their living by holding the whip or
grasping the tiller, will lose their jobs. If they don’t end up starving in the
ditches, they will surely gather [as outlaws] in the forests.
Another official was concerned that coal would run out, arguing that
“when one uses coal with such profligacy, coalfields would soon
disappear.” In addition to these doom-laden visions, there was much
antagonism toward foreigners and foreign-owned concerns at this
time. Imperialist shows of might, such as the Opium Wars, lived in
very recent memory, and foreign powers had been taking advantage
of China’s weakness: several European governments, as well as the
Japanese, had set up missions along the coast that were effectively a
way of obtaining access to China’s riches without paying taxes on
them. As such, Chinese officials took a dim view of the Shanghai–
Woosung Railroad, and its European-sponsored construction never
received official sanction. Just one year after the railroad opened,
Shen Pao-Chen, the governor of the region through which the
railroad ran, ordered the line to be ripped up and had the equipment
shipped to Taiwan, where it was abandoned to the elements.
THE WORLD’S HIGHEST RAILROAD
A train passes through the Kunlun
Mountains on the Qinghai–Tibet Railroad,
the world’s highest rail line, which reaches
16,640ft (5,072m) above sea level.
It was not until 1881 that a permanent railroad line would open in
China. Originally intended to be mule-hauled, the line was a 6-mile
(10-km) standard-gauge railroad running from a coal mine to a canal
at Hsukochuang, about 100 miles (160km) east of the capital, Beijing.
A British engineer, C. W. Kinder, was responsible for the construction,
as well as for commissioning China’s first locomotive, the Rocket of
China. These events, however, did not herald a railroad revolution.
The government remained reluctant to endorse this groundbreaking
method of transportation, despite its success across the world, and
very few lines were built in the 1880s. It took the disastrous defeat in
the Sino-French War of 1884–85 to make the Chinese realize that
modernization was essential and that railroads could be a catalyst for
development. Kinder’s line was extended by 20 miles (32km) in the
direction of Beijing. However, in what can be seen as a measure of the
role of superstition in Chinese government structures, a mysterious
fire in the Imperial Palace was seen as a sign of celestial displeasure
and the line was never completed.
By 1894, when the Sino-Japanese war broke out, little progress had
been made and China had a mere 320 miles (500km) of railroad,
compared with 175,000 miles (280,000km) in the US. However, defeat
in the war finally stimulated a railroad boom in China. While Beijing
became the center of the network, many other lines were built to
serve mines in relatively remote areas. By the time of the Xinhai
Revolution of 1911, which created the Republic of China, there were
6,000 miles (9,500km) of track, a significant increase, but still a
relatively small statistic for the most populous country in the world.
It was, at the time, half the size of the railroad network in India—a
similarly impoverished, but smaller, nation.
Growth of the railroads slowed during the period of the Republic
as a result of a series of civil wars and the occupation of China by
Japan in the late 1930s. Many lines were destroyed in these various
conflicts, and by the end of World War II this vast nation still had only
14,000 miles (22,500km) of workable railroad. After gaining control of
the country for the communists in 1949, Mao Zedong invested heavily
in the railroad network. Lines were repaired and new ones built, even
in difficult mountainous territory. This progress continued after
Mao’s death in 1976, and by the end of the 20th century China finally
had a network covering most of the country. One major gap, however,
remained—a line connecting Tibet with the rest of China.
CHINA, THE NEW PIONEER 375
Tibet is remote and separated from the rest of the country by the
Kunlun Mountains in the north and the Nyenchen Tanglha range in
the east. The main Tibetan plateau is a huge, high landmass stretching
1,500 miles (2,400km) from east to west, and 500 miles (800km) from
north to south. It is home to the largest subarctic permafrost region
in the world—which, to put it mildly, is not ideal railroad territory.
All land routes to the vast plateau cross mountain passes that climb
higher than any peak in the US. As author Abrahm Lustgarten
describes in China’s Great Train, the roads
twist and wind through steep gorges loaded like cannons with unstable
rock and snow at their peaks and flushing with torrents of interminable
water in their troughs.
A China–Tibet rail link was seen as a way to cement China’s control

over this long-disputed area, known by the Chinese as the Tibetan
Autonomous Region. Historically part of China, Tibet had declared
its independence following the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912,
but had been reclaimed by the communist-controlled government in
1951 and occupied by soldiers from the People’s Liberation Army. Ever
since the communist revolution, the government had harbored
APPROACHING LHASA
A train charges along the 3,047-ft (929-m)-long
Lhasa River Railway Bridge, 1¼ miles (2km) from
the terminus of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway.
ambitions to build a railroad line to Lhasa, the capital

of Tibet, to help establish control over the territory.
However, technical difficulties and lack of money had
stood in the way of the project. International experts
argued that the railroad simply could not be built,
WORKER’S BADGE having observed the difficulties of laying railroad tracks
This badge displays the on permafrost during the construction of the Baikal
insignia of the China
Railway Corporation, Amur Mainline in eastern Russia (see pp.330–37).
which employs some Tibet accounts for an eighth of China’s landmass
2 million people.
and yet in 2000 it was still the only region in the
country without a rail link connecting it to the more developed
east. The Chinese government instituted a “Go West” campaign
and the proposed line to Tibet became an important part of that
strategy. At the time, Tibet was an undeveloped agrarian region
with little connection to the outside world, but there was a
possibility that mineral resources could be exploited with the help
of the proposed railroad.
A precursor to the Tibetan Railroad was completed in 1984: an
500-mile (800-km) railroad heading west from Xining (the capital
of Qinghai province and the traditional gateway to Tibet) to
Golmud, also in Qinghai province. The plan to continue the line
through to Lhasa, however, would not be agreed to until over a
decade later. In 1999, President Jiang Zemin launched a campaign to
develop western China, which was lagging behind the booming
east, and the Tibet railroad became a key part of that strategy.
However, there remained some dispute over the best route for the
railroad. Golmud, which had been founded in the 1960s as a labor
camp for mainly Tibetan prisoners, was now a small city and offered
the shortest route to Lhasa. This route involved crossing hundreds
of miles of permafrost, however, and there were concerns that the
technology to ensure that this could be done was not available. The
most obvious alternative route was one from Yunnan province in
southern China, but this would be twice the distance of the Golmud
route, and so twice as expensive. Eventually, it was decided that it
was possible to overcome the permafrost problem, and work started
on the 710-mile (1143-km) line between Golmud and Lhasa in 2001.
A railroad constructed in the 21st century benefitted from many
previously unavailable techniques, but the difficulties of working at
such high altitude in a remote region still surpassed that of most
previous railroad projects, and the labor force required was

enormous—over 100,000 workers migrated to Tibet to build the
railroad at the start of the project. One major challenge was that
some sections had to be built on ground that was not quite
permafrost—the top layers of soil melted during the summer and so
became unstable. To accommodate this, long sections of track were
elevated on what were effectively bridges, held up by deep, pile-driven
foundations. In addition, passive heat exchangers were installed to
cool the track and the surrounding soil.
The human cost of the venture was high, with many workers
succumbing to altitude sickness. According to Lustgarten, “Tibetans
in nearby villages would see railway officials burying dead workers
on the hillsides outside the [Fenghuoshan] tunnel”, but the official
explanation for the deaths was food poisoning. No casualty statistics
have been released by the authorities, who deny that there were any
deaths from altitude sickness.
The work began at both ends of the line, and track-laying was
completed within four years—installation of signaling and other
equipment took another year. Just five years after work started in
July 2006, the line opened with much fanfare. The overall cost was
around $4 billion—although this may be an underestimation given
the difficulties of precisely working out the costs of the program.
On its completion, the Qinghai–Tibet Railroad beat numerous
records in railroad construction. It is the highest railroad in the
world: the Tanggula Pass, at 16,640ft (5,072m), surpasses its
spectacular counterpart in the Andes, Peru (see pp.196–201), built
almost a century before, by around 820ft (250m). Tanggula station is
also the world’s highest railroad station, and the ¾-mile (1.2-km)-
long Fenghuoshan Tunnel is also the highest railroad tunnel in the
world at 13,435ft (4,905m) above sea level.
The railroad has a capacity of up to eight passenger services per
day in each direction. Since the air in Tibet is thin, the cars on Lhasa
trains have special air conditioning systems to keep oxygen levels
healthy, and each seat has its own emergency breathing apparatus.
The windows are especially large to give travelers the best view, and
are protected against the high levels of ultraviolet light on the Tibetan
plateau. With all these dangers, passengers are required to obtain a
Health Registration Card before traveling from Golmud to Lhasa,
and each train has a doctor on board in case of emergencies.
China’s belated railroad expansion has continued with the

construction of a huge network of high-speed lines. Up until 1993,
China’s trains were still very slow, averaging just 30mph (48kph),
prompting a number of “speed up” campaigns to counter
competition from roads and aviation. The result was a series of
services that could run at up to 100mph (161kph) by the end of the
decade. The government, however, had even greater ambitions: the
construction of a whole new set of lines in order to radically improve
rail services and the nation’s infrastructure. A program was thus
devised to build the world’s biggest network of high-speed lines,
defined as more than 124mph (200kph). Some existing lines were
upgraded, but for the most part entirely new lines were
constructed—each one faster than the last. The “Mid-to-Long-
Term Railway Network Plan” proposed the construction of a
national, high-speed rail grid composed of four north-south
corridors and four east-west corridors, which, together with
upgraded existing lines, would total 7,500 miles (12,000km).
The first of these dedicated lines, the Qinhuangdao-Shenyang
High-Speed Railway along the Liaoxi Corridor in the northeast,
opened in 2003 with a line speed of 124mph (200kph), which was
upgraded to 155mph (250kph) by 2007. Others soon followed, some
opening in time for the 2008 Olympics. One of these was the Beijing–
Tianjin Intercity Railway linking
NUMBER OF BRIDGES northern China’s two largest cities and
ON THE GOLMUD- designed for trains running at a speed
LHASA LINE of 217mph (350kph).
675
In October 2010, China opened its
fifteenth high-speed rail, the Shanghai–
Hangzhou line, and the following year
the key Beijing–Shanghai line, which
had a design speed of 236mph (380kph),
became operational. This gave China
over 5,000 miles (8,000km) of dedicated
TOTALLING high-speed track, more than double
that of any other country.
100 miles These impressive advances received

a setback in July 2011 with a disastrous
crash at Wenzhou in which two high-
(161 KM) speed trains derailed. The crash cast a
HIGH-SPEED ROLLING STOCK

A fleet of high-speed bullet trains awaits servicing
at a maintenance base in Wuhan, Hubei province,
one of China’s busiest transportation hubs.
long shadow, and for a time construction slowed. The program

threatened to be delayed, or even shelved, as passenger numbers
dwindled in response to the accident, and the top speeds of trains
were reduced. However, by 2012, the program had resumed and
passenger numbers climbed again.
In 2013, China’s 1,580 high-speed train services transported
1.3 million passengers daily, and these impressive statistics are
only going to grow. The government plans to have a 16,000-mile
(25,750-km), high-speed network by 2020—at a cost of $300 billion—
giving China a high-speed rail system extending many times the
distance of any other country. This achievement, along with the
expanding number of subway lines in towns across the country—
and the record-breaking Tibet Railroad—establishes China as
indisputably the 21st century’s principal railroad pioneer, so far.
ACROSS PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS

A train runs past a mountain range in the
Qinghai Province, northwest China, in 2006.
Although a late starter, China has become
the poster child for modern railroads.
The Railroad Renaissance

THE STORY OF THE RAILROAD would have been remarkable
even if, with the advent of the automobile and plane, it had simply
been consigned to history. In that, it would have resembled the
trajectory of so many other innovations: birth, brief heyday, gradual
decline, and then oblivion. However, despite a period of decline, the
railroad has proved pessimistic predictions wrong by enjoying a 21st-
century renaissance, and a future that looks assured.
This resurgence of the train has not simply been the result of far-
reaching technological developments, although improvements have
certainly been made. Railroad passenger cars are more comfortable
than those of the 19th century, and freight cars are sturdier and better
designed for rapid unloading with the spread of containerization.
Signaling is much improved, too, and there have been other sophisticated
adaptations to make the railroads faster and more efficient. Despite these
advances, train travel in the 21st century would still be immediately
recognizable to George Stephenson and other pioneers. Tracks are still
usually set 4ft 8½in (1,435mm) apart, and passengers are still transported
in cars that stop at stations and are controlled mostly by external signals.
Of course, the function of the train today is different. While the
railroad was once a monopoly supplier of long-distance transportation,
it is now more of a niche industry—but a very important one. Never
again will the railroad serve every village and small town. The heyday of
the iron road providing the only fast and cheap way of traveling between
many places is over; those little village stations and rural halts are lost
forever. Nor will railroads dominate the freight market as they once did.
Gone, too, are the baggage rooms and carts once found at every station,
wiped out by the semitruck and the van.
The railroads had to overcome a very difficult time: there was a
point in the post-war period when railroads were regarded as irrelevant
(see pp.340–47). The French railroad writer Clive Lamming even gave
this phenomenon a name—“ferropessimisme,” the notion that the decline
and marginalization of the railroads was inevitable. But the railroads
are still very much a part of modern life and pessimists have been
proved wrong. Many countries are now bemoaning the fact that key
lines were closed down and major stations turned into shopping malls
or housing developments. Across the world, the railroads are flourishing
T H E R A I LROA D R ENA IS SA NCE 383
and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future, because rail travel
is still a very convenient form of travel for passengers and an extremely
efficient way of transporting goods.
There are several key markets in which rail travel offers great
advantages to passengers. Intercity rail journeys of 300–400 miles
(480–645km)—or further with high-speed lines—may take longer
than a flight, but passengers are able to relax or work on the train and,
unlike far-flung airports, train terminals are located in the heart of the
city. Local commutes are also more efficient by rail, whether train or
subway, as these trips are usually faster and more reliable than driving,
and unaffected by traffic. Trains also offer the best way to enjoy scenic
routes, and in some cases, as with the Trans-Siberian (see pp.180–89), are
one of the only viable means of transportation across remote areas.
Rail is also very well suited to moving large amounts of very heavy,
nonurgent freight, such as gravel and stone, which otherwise damage
roads. Trains have a competitive advantage too, when transporting loads
long distances: they are cheaper than convoys of semitrucks, which
require several drivers and may need to stop overnight. Developments
in containerization have also made loading and unloading far easier.
The railroads have made a remarkable recovery from their post-war

nadir, when it seemed their glory days were at an end and that the train
would soon go the way of the schooner or the stagecoach. They
survived, in most countries at any rate, because of their competitive
edge in several markets, and because road transportation has its own
limitations. In an age of uncertainty over oil supply, railroads remain a
reliable and relatively cheap form of transportation.
The railroads, however, do
not stand still. They are A 1994 US STUDY SHOWED
continually adapting and THAT SEMITRUCKS EMIT
evolving—and expanding. In AROUND
response to competition,
services have been speeded up
and facilities improved;
redundant lines and services
have been abandoned; and
8 TIMES
major developments can still
be expected. One such example MORE AIR POLLUTION
is the wider adoption of in-cab THAN TRAINS
signaling to replace external signals; this is safer and more efficient,

allowing more trains on the track, but will require considerable
investment. Moreover, and more significantly, brand-new and
reopened lines are springing up in many places.
There are a huge number of significant projects in the works,
many costing billions, or tens of billions, of dollars. Aside from China
(see pp.372–81), Saudi Arabia is probably responsible for more major
rail and subway developments than any other country. Its 900-mile
(1500-km)-long North–South line will enable freight to travel from
Al Jalamid (in the phosphate belt in the north) to Az Zabirah (in the
bauxite belt in the center of the country), and then eastward to the
processing and port facilities at Raz Az Zawr.
Also in the pipeline is the ambitious Landbridge Project, which is
intended to run from the west to east coasts of Saudi Arabia, linking
the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, thus greatly reducing the time
required to transport freight from the Gulf. It involves building 600
miles (960km) of new line to connect the capital city, Riyadh, to Jeddah
on the west coast, while upgrading existing links between Riyadh and
the city of Dammam on the east coast. In addition, 80 miles (130km) of
track will run north–south along the coast to connect Dammam and
Jubail. These links will create a useful new route for sending raw
materials and manufactured goods between Europe and North
America on one side, and East and South Asia on the other.
In addition to these bold initiatives, the Saudi government is
building a Mecca-to-Medina line (the Haramain High Speed Rail) to
carry pilgrims for the Haj, redolent of the Hejaz Railway (see pp.288–
93). Other proposals include the Riyadh subway, to serve six routes,
and the Saudi–Bahrain Railway Bridge.
All of these projects involve building lines across difficult
desert terrain, often in remote areas, echoing many of the great
construction projects covered in this book. It is clear that Saudi Arabia
is embracing the railroads in a way that is astonishing for a country
that is home to the world’s largest
THE PROJECTED COST OF oil reserves, with a wealth built
THE RIYADH SUBWAY IN on supplying gasoline for cars.
SAUDI ARABIA There is no shortage of exciting
forthcoming developments and
$23 BILLION projects worldwide. Russia is

planning to improve the Trans-
VISIONS OF THE FUTURE

This digital projection of a terminus along the
Haramain High Speed Rail in Saudi Arabia shows
the platforms shielded by fabric roofing. The ambitious
designs for the main stations will enable massive capacity.
Siberian (see pp.180–89) and the Baikal Amur Mainline (see pp.330–37),
and has visions of building a line across to the United States. It would
certainly beat any other project for sheer ambition and, indeed, cost.
The renaissance of rail is arguably most remarkable in Africa—a
continent that has never properly exploited the advantages of rail
transportation. Now, thanks in many instances to investment from
China, several major lines have been brought back into use and others
are being constructed. A plan to build an 1,800-mile (2,900-km) line
across central Africa, linking the capital of landlocked Rwanda,
Kigali, with the Kenyan port of Mombasa, looks set to proceed with
Chinese money at a cost of $13.8 billion. The railroad will partly make
use of an existing colonial-era line in Kenya and Uganda, but the
section from the Ugandan capital, Kampala, through to Kigali will be
entirely new. Connections through to other parts of Kenya and
Uganda are also envisaged.
In West Africa, work is starting on a line in order to facilitate the
export of minerals. The line would link Niamey, the capital of
another landlocked nation, Niger, with the huge port of Abidjan in
Ivory Coast, via Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso. Nigeria
also has plans to renew and expand its railroads, and is seeking to
reinstate commuter services in its biggest city, Lagos. In South
Africa, a new 50-mile (80-km) mass rapid transit system, the

Gautrain, was fully opened in 2012, linking Johannesburg, Pretoria,
Ekurhuleni, and O. R. Tambo International Airport. There will
never be a Cape to Cairo line (see pp.214–23), but Africa will become
more rail-oriented than it has ever been.
The growth of the railroads is a worldwide phenomenon. In the fall
of 2013, the railroad development website, railway-technology.com,
listed nearly 450 major railroad projects across the world, including
more than 100 in Asia and 33 in Australasia. As mentioned previously,
there are plans for high-speed lines in numerous countries where
previously rail investment had stagnated or declined. High-speed rail is
a rising new market as it attracts travelers away from short-haul flights
and onto the more environmentally sustainable railroads. It offers not
only the prospect of reduced journey times between city centers, but
also a far more pleasant travel experience.
Meanwhile, the other great boom in railroad development has
been the subway, and this shows no sign of abating. In the summer of
2013, there were 188 subway systems across the world in no fewer than
54 countries, ranging from Teresina in Brazil to Yerevan in Armenia.
Perhaps the most surprising adherents are to be found in car-obsessed
A FAILED ENTERPRISE
The underused, overpriced Sydney Monorail
ran for 25 years, before being scrapped in 2013 to
make way for a light rail system.
Dubai, the largest city in the United Arab Emirates, which opened a
subway line in 2009. The city has already opened a second line, with
plans for three more in the wake of its success.
Light rail, or trolleys, are also enjoying a global revival. Old systems
are being renovated and many cities, even in the car-dominated US,
are opening new lines. In the US, a new type of housing, “transit-
oriented development” (high-density development centered around
a transit stop), is proving popular as it allows people to commute
easily to work, without having to drive.
Rail travel has succeeded by seeing off the alternatives. For a time
other technologies were variously put forward as having greater
potential to improve transportation, including numerous bizarre
monorail plans. The most prominent of these was “maglev”—
magnetic levitation (see pp.388–89). Magnetic force is used to elevate
the “train” slightly above the special track and then magnets are used
to provide forward thrust. The result was a very smooth ride at far
higher speeds than conventional trains, along with better acceleration
and braking. Despite many decades of research and development, and
the introduction of a few systems, there are still currently only two
maglev systems in operation—one in Japan and the other in China.
The Chinese maglev, shuttling passengers between Shanghai and the
airport, takes just seven minutes 20 seconds to cover 18½ miles (30km)
and reaches a speed of 268mph (430kph). However, the cost of
development, the potential risks (there has been one major accident
on a German test track, resulting in 23 deaths), and the fact that
conventional rail is already a tried and tested technology used across
the world, has meant that maglev expansion has been stymied. While
there are proposals for lines in several countries, it is clear there is no
immediate prospect of this technology replacing rail.
In what has proved to be a real shock to many transportation
planners (and past futurologists), the railroads have not only survived
to see the 21st century, but are, in fact, booming. As oil becomes scarcer
and concerns about environmental impact grow, rail travel will only
appear more attractive. Rail offers convenience, safety, and speed, as
well as compatability with personal technology: travelers can use
mobile devices or work on laptops, using time otherwise wasted behind
the wheel. The train is becoming more, not less, suited to life in today’s
world. The 21st century will be the second age of the train.
Maglev Trains
Unlike conventional trains with their track-and-wheel interface, maglev
(magnetic levitation) trains literally float on air, using powerful magnets
to suspend trains at a constant level above a steel rail or guideway and
electromagnetic force to propel the trains. Due to a lack of friction,
maglev trains are quiet and stable, can accelerate and decelerate fast, and
both trains and guideway suffer little wear and tear. However, due to
incompatibility with existing railroads, maglev technology has seen
limited adoption—the only working commercial systems are in Japan
and China. The maglev infrastructure is expensive to build, but once in
place operating costs are low and the trains can achieve very high velocity:
maglev trains hold the world speed record for rail transportation.
Alternative Systems
The SCMaglev (Superconducting Maglev,
named for the train’s powerful magnets) is
the latest in a series of high-speed maglev
trains developed in Japan. It makes use
of electrodynamic suspension (EDS) on
U-shaped rails for levitation and propulsion.
It has undergone successful trials, though
has not yet progressed to commercial use.
THE SCMAGLEV IS THE FASTEST PASSENGER Train runs on a
TRANSPORT TRAIN IN THE WORLD, REACHING T-shaped monorail
361MPH (581KPH) ON A TEST TRACK IN 2003. which makes
derailment almost
impossible
M AGL EV T R A I NS 389
How it works
Existing commercial maglev systems use electric current in the track. This current
electromagnetic suspension (EMS), in can be adjusted to determine the train’s
which magnets in the train are activated speed, while electronic sensors monitor
for both levitation and propulsion by an the gap between train and guideway.
LEVITATION
Powerful electromagnets
on the undercarriage of
the train, which wraps
around the T-shaped
guideway, are attracted by
levitation and guidance
coils mounted in the rail.
PROPULSION GUIDEWAY
The polarity of propulsion
coils in the rail changes
Guide magnets constantly, attracting and
on train repelling magnets on the TRAIN
Guideway’s
maintain electromagnetic
train. The frequency is
an ⅜–½in coils (stators) and reversed to stop the train.
(8–12mm) gap train’s support
magnets attract Guideway’s alternating Direction of
Battery-powered support each other to current attracts then repels magnetic field,
magnets on train levitate train train’s magnets to propel train reversed to brake
TRANSRAPID MAGLEV
German company Transrapid, the leader
in maglev trains, has been honing its
electromagnetic suspension (EMS) since
the 1960s. Seen here on its test track, the
Transrapid train went into commercial
operation in 2004 on China’s Shanghai
Maglev, which travels the 18½ miles (30km)
from the airport to the financial district
in 8 minutes at 250mph (400kph).
Lack of engine makes

maglev trains light and
energy-efficient: air
cooling the propulsion
system uses more
power than levitation
C-shaped undercarriage
contains the train's
support magnets
for levitation
390 GLOSSARY
Glossary
ADHESION The frictional grip between the CUTTING / CUT A channel dug through the
wheel of a train and the rail of a track. hillside to enable a rail track to maintain
AIR CUSHION A “spring” of air used in modern a shallow gradient.
suspension systems. CYLINDER The core of a steam engine in which
AIR BRAKE A braking system that uses a piston moves back and forth under the pressure
compressed air as its operating medium. of expanding and condensing steam.
AMERICAN A steam locomotive with a wheel DRAFT GEAR A term used to describe the shock
arrangement of 4-4-0. absorbing unit that forms the connection
ATLANTIC A steam locomotive with a wheel between the coupler and the center sill.
arrangement of 4-4-2. EMBANKMENT A raised pathway across a
BALDWIN A US locomotive manufacturer that was depression in the landscape that enables a rail
in business from 1825 to 1971. track to maintain a shallow gradient.
BALLAST The bed of stone, gravel, or cinders on ENGINE The power source of a locomotive, driven
which a rail track is laid. by steam, electricity, or diesel.
BANK A steep section of a track that a train EXPRESS TRAIN A train that passes certain
requires additional engines to climb. stations on its route without stopping, to arrive
BERKSHIRE A steam locomotive with a wheel at its final destination faster, as opposed to a
arrangement of 2-8-4. local train, which makes all stops along its route.
BLASTPIPE The exhaust pipe of a steam locomotive FIREBOX The compartment within a steam
that diverts steam from the cylinders into the engine where fuel is burned to provide heat.
smokebox beneath the smokestack to increase the FIREMAN / STOKER / BOILERMAN A worker
draft through the fire. responsible for keeping the firebox of an engine
BOGIE See truck fed with coal.
BOILER Cylindrical chamber in which steam is FREIGHT / GOODS Materials or products
produced to drive a steam locomotive. transported for commercial gain.
BOXCAR An enclosed rectangular freight car GANDY DANCER An early term for a track
that has doors and is used for general service and maintenance worker.
especially for lading that must be protected from GAUGE The width between the inner faces
the weather. Called a van in the UK. of the rails.
BRANCH LINE A secondary railroad line that GONDOLA An open-top piece of rolling stock that
branches off a main line. has straight sides and ends and a level floor; used
BROAD GAUGE Rails spaced more widely than for bulk freight, such as steel pipes and rolls of
the standard gauge of 4ft 8½ in (1,435mm). cable.
BUMPING POST / BUMPER The post at GRADE CROSSING A location where a railroad
the end of a track that halts a train from crosses a road or path at the same elevation.
traveling any further. HANDCAR A small, open railroad car propelled
CAB The control room of a locomotive, providing by its passengers, often by means of a hand
shelter and seats for the engine crew. pump. Known as a pump trolley in Britain.
CABOOSE A car attached to the end of a freight HUDSON A steam locomotive with a wheel
train and used as an office and headquarters for arrangement of 4-6-4.
the conductor and brakeman while in transit. INTERCHANGE The transfer of cars from one
CANT The difference of elevation of a rail railroad to another at a common junction point.
relative to its partner rail. INTERLOCKING TOWER A control room in
CHALLENGER A steam locomotive with a wheel which the movement of trains is controlled by
arrangement of 4-6-6-4. means of signals and blocks, ensuring trains
CHIMNEY See smokestack travel safely and on schedule. The UK term is
COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE A steam locomotive signal box.
that uses two sets of cylinders, the second INTERMODAL A flexible way of transporting
powered by exhaust steam from the first. freight over water, highway, and rail without it
COUPLER A device located at both ends of rail being removed from the original transportation
cars in a standard location to provide a means equipment, namely a container trailer.
for connecting one rail car to another. Called a JUBILEE A steam locomotive with a wheel
coupling in the UK. arrangement of 4-6-4.
COUPLING ROD A rod that connects driving JUNCTION A place where multiple train lines
wheels on a steam locomotive. split or converge.
COWCATCHER A metal frame projecting from LANTERN A portable lamp with a fuel source.
the front of a steam locomotive designed to clear Used by early railroad workers to provide light
the track of obstructions. and to signal to other workers at night.
GLOSSARY 391
LIGHT RAIL Small, fixed railroads, typically STANDARD GAUGE Rails spaced 4ft 8½ in
operating within urban environments e.g. (1,435mm) apart.
streetcars and trolleys. STATION MASTER The individual in charge of
LOCOMOTIVE The engine-powered vehicle that running a station.
either pulls or pushes a train along the tracks. STEAM ENGINE An engine that uses steam,
LOOP A railroad formation where tracks cross produced by heating water with burning fuel,
over themselves as they ascend a mountain. to perform mechanical work.
MAIN LINE The primary line between major SUBWAY A railroad that operates primarily
towns or cities, exclusive of branch lines. underground, typically in a major city. Known
MARCHALING YARD See yard as the underground in the UK.
MIKADO A steam locomotive with the wheel TENDER The car attached immediately behind
arrangement 2-8-2. a steam locomotive containing the necessary
MONORAIL A railroad system based on fuel and water needed to power a steam
a single rail. Often elevated, and built in locomotive.
urban environments. THROUGH COACH A passenger car that
NARROW GAUGE A railroad with a gauge switches locomotives mid-journey, removing the
narrower than the standard 4ft 8½ in (1,435mm). need for passengers to switch trains. Used
NAVVIES A British term for specialized manual particularly on long-haul journeys.
laborers who constructed the majority of the TRACK The permanent fixtures of rails,
railroads in the 19th century. ballast, fastenings, and underlying substrate
PACIFIC A steam locomotive with a wheel that provide a runway for the wheels
arrangement of 4-6-2. of a train.
PANTOGRAPH A metal arm that slides TRACTION The act of drawing or pulling a
underneath an overhad electric line, providing load. Can also refer to the adhesive friction
power to an electric train. of a train to a track.
PASSENGER TRAIN A train with passenger cars TRUCK The undercarriage assembly of a train,
intended to transport people. incorporating the wheels, suspension, and
PASSING LOOP See siding brakes. Called a bogie in the UK.
PASSING SIDING A position on a single-track TURNTABLE A device for rotating rail vehicles
railroad, where trains traveling in opposite so they can travel back in the direction they
directions can pass each other. Called a passing came from. Largely obsolete today.
loop in the UK. UNDERGROUND See subway
PISTON A component of an internal- UNIT TRAIN A train that carries only one type
combustion engine which moves up and down of good or commodity, e.g., coal.
against a liquid or gas to provide motion. VAN See boxcar
POINTS / RAILROAD SWITCH A movable section WATER CRANE See water tower
of a railroad that allows a train to move from WATER TOWER A track-side device for quickly
one track to another. refilling the water tank of a steam locomotive.
PRAIRIE A steam locomotive with a wheel Known in the UK as a water crane.
arrangement of 2-6-2. WHEEL The wheels of trains are typically cast or
RAILROAD CAR A covered railroad vehicle used forged from hardened steel. .
for carrying passengers or cargo. WHEEL ARRANGEMENT A system for
ROLLING STOCK Used by railroad companies to classifying how wheels are placed under a
refer to the entire collection of equipment that locomotive, such as the Whyte notation.
runs run on their railroad. WHEEL FLANGE A component of a train wheel.
ROUNDHOUSE Buildings used to service The flange extends the wheels to the interior of
and store locomotives. Many used to be the train track, preventing the train from
arranged around a turntable. running off the rails.
SIDING A section of track off the main line used WHYTE NOTATION A system classifying wheel
for passing trains or for storing rolling stock. arrangment by counting first leading wheels, then
SIGNAL BOX See interlocking tower driving wheels, then trailing wheels (e.g. 0-2-2).
SLEEPER A train that can provide beds for its YARD An area with multiple tracks, other than
passengers, particularly for overnight or main tracks, and sidings for the storage,
long-distance journeys. maintenance, and loading and unloading of
SMOKEBOX A component of a steam engine. rolling stock, and where freight cars are organized
The smokebox would collect smoke from into trains.
the firebox, after it had heated water to provide YELLOWSTONE A steam locomotive with a wheel
steam, and release it though the smokestack arrangement of 2-8-8-4.
or chimney. ZIGZAG / SWITCHBACK A method of track
SMOKESTACK The vertical exhaust funnel of a construction on steep inclines. A train ascends
train. Called a chimney in the UK. and descends the track in a zigzag fashion.
392 BIBLIOGR APHY
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American Experience, Johns Hopkins University Freeman, China: The World’s Last Steam Railway,
Press, 2010 Artists’ and Photographers’ Press, 2008
Oscar Lewis, The Big Four, Alfred A. Knopf, 1938 Harmon Tupper, To the Great Ocean, Secker &
Albro Martin, Railroads Triumphant, Oxford Warburg, 1965
University Press, 1992 K.R. Vaidyanathan, 150 Glorious Years of Indian
Nick and Helma Mika, The Railways of Canada: A Railways, English Edition Publishers, 2003
Pictorial History, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972 Christopher J. Ward, Brezhnev’s Folly: The Building
O.S. Nock, Railways of Canada, A&C Black, 1973 of the BAM and Late Soviet Socialism, University of
Pittsburgh Press, 2009
Andrew Roden, Great Western Railway: A History,
Aurum, 2010 Various authors, Guide to the Great Siberian
Railway, 1900, David & Charles reprints, 1971
David Rollinson, Railways of the Caribbean,
Macmillan, 2001
D. Trevor Rowe, The Railways of South America, AFRICA
Locomotives International, 2000 John Day, Railways of South Africa, Arthur
John F. Stover, American Railroads, University of Barker, 1963
Chicago Press, 1961 M.F. Hill, The Permanent Way: The Story of the
Richard White, The Transcontinentals and the Tanganyika Railways, East African Railways and
Making of Modern America, Norton, 2011 Harbours, 1958
Oscar Zanetti and Alejandra García, Sugar and George Tabor, Cape to Cairo, Genta, 2003
Railroads: A Cuban History, 1837–1959, University
of North Carolina Press, 1998 AUSTRALASIA
Neill Atkinson, Trainland, Random House, 2007
ASIA Tim Fischer, Transcontinental Train Journey, Allen
Ralph William Huenemann, The Dragon and the & Unwin, 2004
Iron Horse: The Economics of Railroads in China, C.C. Singleton and David Burke, Railways of
1876–1937, Harvard University Press, 1984 Australia, Angus & Robertson, 1963
Robert Hardie, The Burma Siam Railway, Patsy Adam Smith, The Desert Railway, Rigby
Quadrant Books, 1984 1974
Ian J. Kerr, Engines of Change: The Railways that Patsy Adam Smith, Romance of Australian
Made India, Praeger, 2007 Railways, Rigby, 1973
Ian J. Kerr, Building the Railways of the Raj,
1850–1900, Oxford University Press, 1995
Abrahm Lustgarten, China’s Great Train: Beijing’s
Drive West and the Campaign to Remake Tibet,
Henry Holt, 2008
394 INDEX
map 50–51
Index station design 155, 158
braking system 139, 140, 144–45
Brazil, reversing engine 80
Illustrations are in italics
bridge design 168–69
A Britain
accidents 140, 141, 143, 278–82, 307, 308
accidents atmospheric railroad 68–70, 68
braking system improvements 139, Brighton electric railway 225, 226
140 cable/rope railroads 71, 72–73
Britain 140, 141, 143, 278–82, 307, 308 Channel Tunnel 295, 348–53, 348, 350–51,
engineer error 141 353–55
and “joint bar” joining rails 140 diesel and electric locomotives 224–25, 230, 319
France 43, 138–39, 140, 143, 284–86 early investment 15–17, 23
Germany 143, 371 fraud 244–45
grade crossings 142–43 Great Western Railway 86–87, 160, 162, 307–08
India 140 heritage railroads 343–45
Ireland 43, 139 high-speed trains 305–08, 309, 369, 371
New Zealand 168 Liverpool and Manchester Railway 14, 22, 23,
and railroad management 143 25–29, 52, 60, 71, 232
Spain 142, 286, 287, 371 London and Birmingham line 29, 71, 85, 86
and speeding 142, 143 London and North Western Railway (LNWR)
terrorist attacks 141 164–65
tombstone technology 138–40 London Underground 71, 130–37, 132–34, 137,
United States 142–43 227, 229
Africa map 50–51
Blue Train 177 Metropolitan Railway Company 131–36,
Cape of Good Hope to Cairo, plans for 214–21 132–34
map 222–23 military use 60–61, 272–74, 278–82
military use 218–19, 220 monorails 71–72, 164
West Africa line proposals 385–86 navvies 84–87
Allen, Ralph 17 “parliamentary (ghost) trains” 340–41
Alps 102–07, 103 privatization 143
AlpTransit project 107 rail closures 340–41, 342–43, 343, 345
locomotive competition 104 railroad barons 163–65
rack railroad 105–06 railroad mania and expansion 52–54
Semmering Pass line 102–05, 104 “scrip” share vouchers 52
track-laying logistics 103–06 station design 154–55, 158, 353
tunnels 106–07, 193, 228, 357, 358, 360 Stockton and Darlington line 22, 23–25, 52
Andes 198–203 strikes 238–39
Argentina 157, 267 terrorist attacks 141
Australia Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 68–70, 68, 154, 162
freight conveyance 297–98 Budd, Ralph 315–16
gauge size problems 296–302
Sydney Monorail 386 C
Trans-Australian Railway 298, 299, 300–01
cable/rope railroads 71, 72–73
Austria
Canada
balloon railroad 73
Canadian Pacific Railway 125–27, 126
early network, horse-drawn 46
station design 156, 158
map 50–51
cars 146–51
military use 60, 271–72
aristocracy, use of own 146–47
Mödling Tram 227
compartments 146, 148, 148
Semmering Pass line 102–04, 165
corridor trains 151
B early travel discomfort 146–48
Orient Express see Orient Express
Beeching, Richard 342–43, 343 policing 150–51, 150
Belgium sleeping cars, early 170–71
cable railroad 71 ticket prices and comfort levels
early rail network 43–44 146
INDEX 395
ticket-sharing plan 164 high-speed trains 369–70
cars, Pullman 171–77, 276–77 map 50–51
Chicago and Alton Railroad 171, 172, 174–75, military use 60–61, 275, 284–86
176, 177 nationalization 343
deceased passengers 176 rack railroad 105–06, 107
dining car 176–77 rail closures 340, 343
as Lincoln’s hearse 172, 174–75 railroad barons 165
sleeping-and-eating car 173–76 railroad mania and expansion 55
Channel Tunnel 295, 348–53, 348, 350–51, 353–55 SNCF line 55, 57, 231
Chapelon, André 308 station design 155, 157, 158, 191
Chile 198–99, 203 TGV 369–70, 371
China fraud 240–47
early opposition 261, 372 freight trains 212–13, 230–31
high-speed rail lines 261, 371, 378–79, 379–81 funicular railroads 205
maglev system 387
navvies 88–89, 116–17 G
railroad network growth 374 Germany
world’s highest railroad 372, 373, 375–79, 375 accidents 143, 371
Christie, Agatha 190, 193 cable railroad 71
Cooper, Peter 35–36, 36, 38 Deutsche Bahn 143, 231, 295
Costa Rica 203, 260, 261 diesel engines 312–14, 313
Cuba early rail network 14–15, 16, 44–45, 49
slave labor 92, 93–94, 98 electrification 26–27, 224–25, 225
sugar railroads 92–99, 92–93, 95–97 high-speed trains 370, 388–89
Holocaust 320–22
D maglev train 388–89
Dalhousie, Lord 77–81, 77 map 50–51
Dickens, Charles 138, 149, 241 military use 60, 270, 271, 275, 320–22
diesel locomotives 312–17 station design 158
Wuppertal Suspension Railway 72,
E 74–75
Ecuador 204, 345 Ghega, Carl von 102–04, 102
electrification 224–29 ghost (parliamentary) trains 340–41
first commercial 226–28 Girouard, Percy 218–19, 220
locomotives 224–25, 230–31 Golden Age 260–67
main line plans 228–29 communication improvements
trolleys, US 227 266–67
underground 227, 229 economic benefits 263–65
Escher, Alfred 55, 166 industry creation 265–66
Eurotunnel 295, 348–53, 348, 350–51, Gould, Jay 56, 166, 166, 242, 246–47
353–55 gravity railroads 17
F H
Favre, Louis 106 Harriman, Edward 166, 167
field railroads 270–75, 275, 345 Haupt, Herman 63–64
films 65, 157, 173, 325 heritage railroads 343–45
Finland, Helsinki Station 157–58 high-speed trains
Flagler, Henry 206–11 bullet trains 364–70
Forbes, James Staats 135 diesel engines 312–14
France maglev 387, 388–89, 388–89
accidents 43, 138–39, 140, 143, 284–86 safety 371
Channel Tunnel 295, 348–53, 348, 350–51, speed contests 305–08
353–55 steam 304–11
diesel trains 317 streamliners 294–95
early rail travel 42–43, 45, 87 Hill, James J. 124, 125
electrification 228 Hudson, George 54, 54, 55, 164,
funicular railroad 205 241
gravity railroad 17 Hungary 137
Huskisson, William 29
396 INDEX
Andes 198–203
I India 248–57
India reversing engine 80, 80
accidents 140 traveling uphill 204–05
diesel power 229
map 82–83 N
Mountain Railroads 248–57 Nagelmackers, Georges 190–91, 190, 192
Pullman cars 177 navvies 84–89, 93–94, 113–14, 116–17
rail network expansion 76–81, 79–80 Netherlands 45–46, 50–51, 239
reversing engine 80, 80 New Zealand
station design 156–57 accidents 168
terrorist attacks 141 cable railroad 71
workforce 233, 239 railroad expansion 302–03, 302–03
Ireland station design 155
accidents 43, 139 Nicaragua 115
Giant’s Causeway Railway 225–26
map 50–51 O
navvies 88, 92, 93–94
rail closures 340 Orient Express 177, 190–97, 192
Italy Cold War mysterious death 196
accidents 286–87 end of service 197
early rail network 46, 47 first journey 192–93
electrification 228 gauge requirements 190–91
map 50–51 interior design 191–92, 194–95
military use 286–87 murder mystery novel 190, 193
nationalization 165–66 second and third class cars 196–97
rack railroad 105–06 speed 304
railroad mania and expansion 55
Simplon Tunnel 106–07
P
station design 158 Panama Railroad 110–19
Derienni pirates 114, 115, 115
J and the Gold Rush 110–11, 110
Japan navvies 113–14, 116–17
bullet train 364–68, 365–67 track-laying logistics 112
Kyoto Station 158 weather and health hazards 112–13, 115–16
monorail 72 wooden bridges 112, 115–16
rail journeys per capita 360–61 parliamentary (ghost) trains 340–41
Jones, Casey 142, 142 Pauling, George 215–16, 215, 217–18, 219, 220
Judah, Theodore 120–21, 120 Pearson, Charles 130–31, 137
Peru 200, 201, 202–03, 202
L Pick, Frank 136–37, 137
points 152–53
Lawrence, T. E. 141, 288, 292–93, 293 Pullman, George 170, 170, 171–77
M R
Malaysia, monorail 72 rack railroads 71, 105–06, 108–09
Mallard locomotive 11, 294–95, 309, 310–11 Abt system 109
Malta, Misrah Ghar il-Kbir 15 India 253–54, 254
Meiggs, Henry 198–203, 198, 240–41 Riggenbach and Locher systems 108
Meredith, Joseph Carroll 209–10, 211 Switzerland 357
Mexico 262, 264 rail closures 340–47
military use 60–65, 278–87, 284–87, 320–22 and heritage railroads 333–37
field railroads 270–75, 275, 345 rail gauge
monorails 71–72, 74–75, 164 Cape Gauge, Africa 216–17, 218
maglev 387, 388–89, 388–89 Orient Express requirements 190–91
Morgan, J. P. 166, 167 problems, Australia 296–302
Morton, Alastair 350 standardization of 16–17, 25, 49, 90
mountain lines United States 206–07
Alps see Alps
INDEX 397
rail tracks Singapore, Burma to Siam Railway 322–25, 323,

“cut and cover” method 131–34, 325–27
132–33 Snowden, W. F. 70–71
iron 16–17, 23 South Africa, Gautrain 386
longest straight 299, 300–01 South Korea, Train Express 370
structure and materials 90–91 Spain
wheels and trucks 58–59 accidents 142, 286, 287, 371
wooden 14–15 AVE network 370
railroad, first use of term 16 Cuban sugar railroads 92–99, 92–93, 95–97
railroad barons 162–67 map 50–51
insider trading 167 military involvement 286
mergers 164–65 rail gauge 49
as robber barons 166–67, 166 station design 158
Redpath, Leopold 244–45 terrorist attacks 141
Rhodes, Cecil 214, 214, 215, 217, 219, 220 Sri Lanka, tsunami 140, 141
Romania, accident 282–84, 283 Stanley, Albert 136–37
Rothschild family 165, 165 stations and station design
Russia dislike of 155
corruption and profiteering 243 disused stations 158
economic benefits 264 imperialism, effects of 156–57
field railroads 270–71, 274 marketing opportunities 157
rail gauge 49 national differences 154–59, 191, 353
St. Petersburg–Moscow line 46–49, 48 postwar reconstruction programs 158
Trans-Siberian Railway 180–87, 385 as Temples of Steam 154–55
construction challenges 183–85, 186–87 wartime and farewells 157
early plans for 180–82 world’s highest, China 377
funding 182–83 steam power
as “luxury” line, 146 circular track 34
map 188–89 creation of 23, 30–31
military involvement 182, 186, 187 high-speed trains 304–11
sleeper cars 173 stations as Temples of Steam 154–55
station design 155, 187 Stephenson, George 22–23, 22, 29
workforce 89, 89, 184, 185–86, 233 Belgian network 44
Trans-Siberian Railway, Baikal-Amur Liverpool and Manchester line 14, 22, 23, 25–29
Mainline (BAM) 330–37, 337, 385 standardized gauge 25
failure of 336–37 steam locomotion 23
Komsomol youth league 333–34, 334–35, 336 Stockton and Darlington line 22, 23–25
permafrost 331–32, 334, 376 Stephenson, Robert 24
prisoners as workforce 331, 332–33, 332, 333 London and Birmingham Railway 29, 162
recent investment 337 Rocket 28, 29
Severomuysky Tunnel 334–36 station design 154
Swiss rail network 356
S Stevens, John 32, 33–34
Sadleir, John 241, 241 streamliners 276, 277, 294–95
Saudi Arabia, Hejaz Railroad 288–93 subways 71, 130–37, 227, 229, 386–87
Landbridge Project 384 suspension railroad, Germany 72, 74–75
logistical problems 289–91 Sweden, Company fraud 241
Mecca-to-Medina line 384, 385 Switzerland
Medina train, first 291–92, 291 Alps see Alps
military involvement 292–93 electrification 227–28, 358
“scrip” share vouchers 52 Lugano Tramway 227–28
Seguin, Marc 42, 43 map 50–51
Senegal 264–65, 265 nationalization 358
Siemens, Werner von 224–25, 225, 226–27 rack railroad 357
signaling 66–67 rail journeys per capita 360–61
in-cab 384 rail referenda 358–60
points and passing sidings 152–53 railroad mania 55, 166
telegraphy 160–61 railroad network development
356–63
398 INDEX
Spanish Bun Railroad 356, 357 Railroad Safety Appliance Act 237
spiral viaduct 204 railroad barons 56–57, 166–67
transportation integration 360–61 state government charters 34–35
station design 155–56, 157, 158, 159
T trades unions 239
Taiwan, high-speed railroad 370 transcontinental railroad, first 120–24, 166
telegraph system 160–61 Union Pacific Railroad 122–23, 166, 167, 316–17
see also signaling Uruguay, station design 157
terrorist attacks 141
ticket-sharing program 164
V
Totten, George 112, 115, 116, 117 Vanderbilt, Cornelius 56, 115, 166, 241–42, 246–47
Trans-Siberian Railway see Russia, Trans-Siberian Venezuela, mountain railroad 117
Railway Volk, Magnus 225, 226
Trevithick, Richard 20–21, 23, 30, 198
tunnels W
Alps see Alps Watkin, Edward 135, 348
building 354–55 Witte, Sergei 182–83, 183, 186
Channel Tunnel 295, 348–53, 348, 350–51, workforce 232–39
353–55 corporate loyalty 236–37
Severomuysky Tunnel, Trans-Siberian Railway Golden Age 263–64
334–36 health and safety 237–38, 238, 239
turnouts and passing sidings 152–53 navvies see navvies
see also signaling trade unions 238–39
wage levels 236
U working conditions, strict 232, 233–36
Ukraine, funicular railroad 205
UNESCO World Heritage Site, India 248–57
United Arab Emirates, subway lines 387
United States
accidents 142–43
Amtrak 342
Baltimore and Ohio line 35–36, 37–41, 158, 162,
163, 228, 277
California Gold Rush see Panama Railroad
car design, early 148–50, 151, 151, 170–71
Central Pacific line 88–89, 121–23, 166
Chicago and Alton Railroad 171, 172, 174–75,
176, 177
“cowcatcher” invention 34
diesel technology 229, 314–17, 318–19
early investment 32–33, 34, 37–38, 39
electrification 227, 228–29, 230–31
Erie Railroad 35, 56, 88, 150–51, 166, 167,
241–42
Florida East Coast Railroad 206–11
heritage railroads 344, 345, 346–47
high-speed trains 211, 308, 371
interurbans (tramways) 56–57, 341–42
map 128–29
military involvement 61–65
navvies 88–89, 122–23
Pacific Railroad Act 120–21
Pennsylvania Railroad 63, 166, 229, 230–31,
234–35, 308, 309
policing of passengers 150–51, 150
rack railroads 108–09
rail closures, postwar 342
rail gauge 206–07
AC K NOW L E DGM EN T S 399
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Nicholas Faith, Picture Library: NRM. 92 Mary Evans: Iberfoto. 93
author of The World the Railways Made, for drafting Fotolia.com: cityanimal. 96-97 Getty Images: The
several chapters and advising on various aspects of British Library / Robana. 98 Alamy: 19th era. 99 AF
the book, and Malcolm Bulpitt of the Swiss Railway Eisenbahn Archiv. 102 AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 104
Society for his draft of the section on Switzerland. Alamy: imagebroker. 107 Corbis: Swim Ink 2, LLC.
108-109 Getty Images: Roy Stevens / Time & Life
The publisher would like to thank the following Pictures. 110 Topfoto: The Granger Collection.
for their kind permission to reproduce their 113 William L. Clements Library, University of
photographs: Michigan. 115 California State Library. 116 Mary
Evans: Everett Collection. 118-119 Corbis: Michael
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; Maslan Historic Photographs. 120 California State
r-right; t-top) Library. 123 Corbis: Bettmann. 124 Corbis: James
L. Amos. 126 Canadian Pacific Railway. 128 The
2 Matthew Malkiewicz: losttracksoftime.com. 5 Bridgeman Art Library: Private Collection / Peter
Matthew Malkiewicz: losttracksoftime.com. 11 Newark American Pictures (tl). 132-133 Science &
Science & Society Picture Library: NRM / Pictorial Society Picture Library: Science Museum. 134
Collection. 15 Getty Images: Lonely Planet Images. Getty Images: Hulton Archive (b). 137 Getty
18-19 Science & Society Picture Library: Science Images: Keystone / Hulton Archive (tr). 139
Museum. 20-21 Science & Society Picture Library: National Museums Northern Ireland: Collection
Science Museum. 22 The Bridgeman Art Library: Armagh County Museum (b). 140 Getty Images:
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, London, UK. 23 Jimin Lai / AFP (b). 142 Luped.com: Roland Smithies
DK Images: Courtesy of the National Railway (t). 144 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Museum of
Museum, York. 25 Science & Society Picture Pennsylvania (bl). 144-145 akg-images: North Wind
Library: NRM. 26-27 Science & Society Picture Picture Archives. 147 Luped.com: Roland Smithies.
Library: NRM / Pictorial Collection. 28 Science & 148 SuperStock: Christie’s Images Ltd. 150 DK
Society Picture Library: Science Museum. 30-31 Images: Courtesy of B&O Railroad Museum. 151
Science & Society Picture Library: NRM. 32 Getty Images: MPI. 152 Corbis: Underwood &
Smithsonian Institution Archives: NPG.75.13. Underwood (br). 152 Getty Images: Digital Vision
35 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Museum of (bl). 153 Science & Society Picture Library: NRM /
Pennsylvania. 36 Corbis: Bettmann. 37-38 DK Cuneo Fine Arts (bl). 156 Getty Images: Popperfoto.
Images: Courtesy of B&O Railroad Museum. 40 DK 159 Getty Images: Hal Morey. 160 Science &
Images: Courtesy of B&O Railroad Museum (cl, Society Picture Library: Science Museum (c).
cr, bl). 41 DK Images: Courtesy of B&O Railroad 161 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Museum of
Museum (tl). 41 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Pennsylvania (t). 161 Getty Images: Fox Photos (b).
Museum of Pennsylvania (tr, cl, cr). 40-41b DK 163 Corbis: Underwood & Underwood. 165 AF
Images: Courtesy of B&O Railroad Museum. Eisenbahn Archiv. 165 Getty Images: Fotosearch.
42 Getty Images: Culture Club. 45 Topfoto: 166 Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.. 168
ullsteinbild. 47 Alamy: The Art Archive. 48 Getty Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New
Images. 53 Corbis: Michael Nicholson. 54 The Zealand: EP-Accidents-Rail-Tangiwai rail disaster-01
Bridgeman Art Library: Sunderland Museums & (bl). 168-169 Science & Society Picture Library:
Winter Garden Collection, Tyne & Wear, UK. 57 NRM. 170 Getty Images: Chicago History Museum.
Science & Society Picture Library: NRM / 172 Corbis: Bettmann. 174-175 AF Eisenbahn
Cuneo Fine Arts (Artist copyright Estate of Archiv. 177 Getty Images: MPI. 181 The Bridgeman
Terence Cuneo / The Bridgeman Art Library). 58 Art Library: Regional Art Museum, Irkutsk. 183
Traditionsbetriebswerk Stassfurt: (bl). 58-59 AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 184 Getty Images: Sovfoto /
Getty Images: Fox Photos. 66-67 Corbis: Horace UIG. 187 Getty Images: De Agostini / E. Ganzerla.
Bristol. 61 AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 62 Library of 188 Corbis: Hulton-Deutsch Collection (bl). 190
Congress, Washington, D.C.. 65 The Kobal Mary Evans: Epic. 192 Getty Images: Culture
Collection: United Artists. 66 Raggan Datta: (bc). Club. 193 The Art Archive: Kharbine-Tapabor /
68 DK Images: Courtesy of Didcot Railway Centre. Collection IM. 194-195 Corbis: Katie Garrod / JAI.
72-73 Science & Society Picture Library: NRM / 196 akg-images. 198 South American Pictures. 201
Pictorial Collection. 74-75 akg-images. 77 Getty Topfoto: Alinari. 202 Wikimedia: Ernesto Linares.
Images: Hulton Archive. 79 Science & Society 204 Alamy: Prisma Bildagentur AG (bl). 205 Getty
Picture Library: Science Museum. 80 Getty Images: Andrey Rudakov / Bloomberg (cl). 204-205
Images: Hulton Archive. 82 Getty Images: The Marcelo Meneses / Ecuador Adventure: (b). 208
British Library / Robana (bl). 85 Science & Society AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 210-211 The Art Archive:
Picture Library: NRM. 86 Science & Society Culver Pictures. 212 Alamy: imagebroker (cla). 212
Picture Library: Science Museum. 89 Getty DK Images: Courtesy of B&O Railroad Museum (b).
Images: Sovfoto / UIG. 90-91 Science & Society 213 Alamy: Gerry White (cla). 213 Alamy: David
400 AC K NOW L E DGM EN T S
Davies (br). 213 DK Images: Courtesy of Virginia copyright Gerald Coulson). 313 Topfoto:
Museum of Transport (tl, cra). 212-213c DK Images: ullsteinbild. 315 Corbis: Underwood & Underwood.
Courtesy of B&O Railroad Museum. 214 Topfoto: 316 AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 318 Alamy: Daniel
The Granger Collection. 215 Fotolia.com: Popova Dempster Photography (br). 318 Alamy: John Gaffen
Olga. 216 Mary Evans Picture Library. 219 The Art 2 (bl). 318 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Museum
Archive: Eileen Tweedy. 221 Corbis: Ocean. 222 of Pennsylvania (c). 319 Alamy: Thomas J. Peterson
Mary Evans: Illustrated London News Ltd (bl). (tl). 319 Alamy: Frank Paul (b). 319 DK Images:
224-225 Getty Images: General Photographic Courtesy of the Museum of Transportation, St.
Agency. 226 Science & Society Picture Library: Louis, Missouri (tr). 319 Science & Society Picture
Science Museum. 228 Topfoto: The Granger Library: NRM (cr). 321 Corbis: Bettmann. 323
Collection. 230 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Australian War Memorial: Order 6459212. 324
Museum of Pennsylvania (cl). 230 DK Images: Getty Images: LatitudeStock / Emma Durnford.
Courtesy of Ribble Stram Railway (cra). 230 DK 326-327 SuperStock: Andrew Woodley / age
Images: Courtesy of the National Railway Museum, fotostock. 332 Getty Images: Nadezhda Borovaya
York (cla). 231 Alamy: pf (tr). 231 DK Images: Estate / Chip HIRES / Gamma-Rapho. 334 Luped.
Courtesy of Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania (cl). com. 335 Alamy: The Print Collector. 337 Alamy:
231 DK Images: Courtesy of the Musee de Chemin RIA Novosti. 337-338 Getty Images: John Mueller.
de Fer, Mulhouse (tl). 231 Getty Images: Tomohiro 343 Alamy: Keystone Pictures USA. 344 Alamy:
Ohsumi / Bloomberg (cr). 230-231b DK Images: Inge Johnsson. 346-347 Matthew Malkiewicz:
Courtesy of Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania. 233 losttracksoftime.com. 348 Getty Images:
Corbis: S W A Newton / English Heritage / Arcaid. DeAgostini. 350-351 Alamy: qaphotos.com. 353
234-235 The Bridgeman Art Library: Hagley Getty Images: Denis Charlet / AFP. 354 Getty
Museum & Library, Wilmington, Delaware, USA. 236 Images: James L. Stanfield / National Geographic
Bonhams. 238 Science & Society Picture Library: (bl). 354-355 Alamy: qaphotos.com. 357 Corbis:
NRM / Pictorial Collection. 241 Topfoto. 242 Corbis: Hulton-Deutsch Collection (b). 358 Corbis: Swim
Bettmann. 246-247 Getty Images: Stock Montage. Ink 2, LLC (t). 359 Corbis: Daniel Schoenen /
249 Getty Images: Hulton Archive. 250-251 AF imagebroker. 362-363 Alamy: age fotostock.
Eisenbahn Archiv. 254 AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 365 Getty Images: Sankei Archive. 366-367
252-253 DK Images: Courtesy of Adrian Shooter. Dreamstime.com: Sean Pavone. 371 Alamy: Jon
256 Mary Evans Picture Library. 261 Mary Evans: Arnold Images Ltd. 372 SuperStock: imagebroker.
Grenville Collins Postcard Collection. 262 Topfoto: net. 375 Corbis: Wu Hong / epa. 376 DK Images:
The Granger Collection. 265 Corbis: Scheufler Courtesy of the National Railway Museum, York. 379
Collection. 266 Corbis. 268-269 Getty Images: Reuters: Darley Shen. 380-381 Corbis: Chen Xie /
Fox Photos. 271 Alamy: The Print Collector. 272 Xinhua Press. 385 Foster + Partners. 386 age
Topfoto. 275 The Bridgeman Art Library: Galerie fotostock: jovannig. 388 Corbis: Noboru
Bilderwelt. 276 DK Images: Courtesy of Virginia Hashimoto / Sygma (bc).
Museum of Transportation (b). 276 DK Images:
Courtesy of Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania (tr).
276 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Museum of MAPS
Pennsylvania (ca). 277 DK Images: Courtesy of B&O Maps are provided throughout the book to illustrate
Railroad Museum (t, c, b). 276-277 DK Images: selected railroad lines and other features. Please note
Courtesy of Virginia Museum of Transportation (c). that these are for general information only and are
278-279 Getty Images: Neurdein / Roger Viollet. not intended to be comprehensive. Place names are
280-281 AF Eisenbahn Archiv. 284 REX Features: given according to the period the map depicts.
Sipa Press. 288 Getty Images: Hulton Archive. 291
Corbis: Col. F. R. Maunsell / National Geographic CONVERSIONS
Society. 293 Corbis: John Springer Collection. Unless specified, figures are approximate and are
294 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad Museum given to the nearest round number. Where currency
of Pennsylvania (bl). 295 DK Images: Courtesy of conversions are given, the conversion is calculated to
Virginia Museum of Transportation (t). 295 DK the approximate exchange rate of the period, unless
Images: Courtesy of the DB Museum Nürnberg, specifically stated otherwise.
Germany (cb). 295 Getty Images: The Asahi
Shimbun (br). 294-295 DK Images: Courtesy of the NUMBERS
National Railway Museum, York (c). 298 Alamy: “Billion” indicates the short-scale definition, or
imagebroker. 300-301 Alamy: WoodyStock. 302 1,000 million.
Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington,
New Zealand: Ref: Eph-E-RAIL-1940s-01. 303 N Z
Railway & Locomotive Society Collection: J D
Buckley. 305 Corbis: Hulton-Deutsch Collection. 306
Science & Society Picture Library: NRM / Pictorial
Collection. 309 DK Images: Courtesy of Railroad
Museum of Pennsylvania. 310-311 Science & Society
Picture Library: NRM / Pictorial Collection (Artist

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A N I L L U S T R AT E D

12 THE FIRST TRACKS

100 THE SPREAD OF THE RAILROADS

258 WAR AND UNCERTAINTY

328 THE IRON ROAD TODAY

O f all the great inventions of the Industrial Revolution, the

Then the railroads arrived and changed everything. One of their

suddenly broadened, being no longer confined to the immediate

STEAM AND SPEED

types of business management and even accounting methods.

T HE WORLD’S FIRST RAILROAD, the Liverpool and Manchester

THE FIRST TRACKS

A few canny mine owners devised more sophisticated railroad

THE CAUSEY ARCH

The idea of steam power goes back to Classical times—Archimedes

FRENCH STEAM PIONEER

THE “STEAM TROLLEY,” 1672

engine on rails. Trevithick had a setback in 1801, when his “road

The Father of Railroads

H UNDREDS OF INVENTORS, at different times, contributed to

LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER

owners to give him the means to build a “traveling machine”—his

GEORGE STEPHENSON’S railroad that would connect

4ft 8½in (1,435 mm)

The completed Stockton and Darlington Railway was recognized as

The heavy traffic on the Stockton and Darlington line encouraged

freight railroad, it would also carry passengers, as it linked two very

inarticulate in the intimidating atmosphere of Parliament. For a

October 6, 1829, in front of 15,000 spectators. The technical requirements

“George Stephenson told me as a

world, several of whom would return home to inspire the building of

Powering the Engine

How steam is created

FROM WATER TO MOTION

FUELING THE ENGINE

PHASE 1: OUTWARD STROKE

PHASE 3: RETURN STROKE

The First American

I N 1828, THE 90-YEAR-OLD CHARLES CARROLL STEPPED UP

COLONEL JOHN STEVENS

NORT H A M ER ICA N R A I LROA DS TO 18 6 0

Major city CANADA

Oklahoma MEMPHIS Columbia

Austin NEW ORLEANS

Until the advent of the railroads, transportation in the US had been

“The introduction of so powerful

practice. When the Erie Railroad was being constructed across

had been completed, reaching an exhilarating 18mph (29kph). On the

THE RACE BETWEEN OLD AND NEW

B&O CENTENARY MEDAL, 1827-1927

Their characteristically huge, bulbous chimneys—needed to contain

These early lines were successful and mostly profitable, which

The Early Years of

BALTIMORE AND OHIO GRASSHOPPER BALTIMORE AND OHIO GRASSHOPPER

BALTIMORE AND OHIO NO.57: MEMNON (1848)

CUMBERLAND VALLEY RAILROAD SHAY NO.1: LEETONIA (1906)

MOORE-KEPPEL AND READING COMPANY NO.1251 (1918)

A S BRITAIN WAS PIONEERING THE RAILROADS, the cafés of

However, despite the naysayers, the major European countries—

Many other countries around Europe joined the Railway Age in

national identity. Consequently, the country’s first king, Leopold I,

Germany’s first railroad also opened in 1835, doing so in Bavaria,

9,400 factories had sprung up in the