ACTA BIOLÓGICA COLOMBIANA
Artículo de investigación
MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF THE NERITIDAE (GASTROPODA:
NERITIMORPHA) BASED ON THE MITOCHONDRIAL GENES
CYTOCHROME OXIDASE I (COI) AND 16S rRNA
Filogenia molecular de la familia Neritidae
(Gastropoda: Neritimorpha) con base en los genes mitocondriales
citocromo oxidasa I (COI) y 16S rRNA
JULIAN QUINTERO-GALVIS1, Biólogo; LYDA RAQUEL CASTRO1,2, Ph. D.
1
Grupo de Investigación en Evolución, Sistemática y Ecología Molecular. INTROPIC. Universidad del Magdalena. Carrera 32# 22 - 08.
Santa Marta, Colombia. julianquintero1924@gmail.com.
2
Programa Biología. Universidad del Magdalena. Laboratorio 2. Carrera 32 # 22 - 08. Sector San Pedro Alejandrino. Santa Marta, Colombia.
Tel.: (57 5) 430 12 92, ext. 273. lydaraquelcastro@hotmail.com.
Corresponding author: julianquintero1924@gmail.com.
Presentado el 15 de abril de 2013, aceptado el 18 de junio de 2013, correcciones el 26 de junio de 2013.
ABSTRACT
The family Neritidae has representatives in tropical and subtropical regions that occur in a variety of environments, and its
known fossil record dates back to the late Cretaceous. However there have been few studies of molecular phylogeny in this
family. We performed a phylogenetic reconstruction of the family Neritidae using the COI (722 bp) and the 16S rRNA (559
bp) regions of the mitochondrial genome. Neighbor-joining, maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference were performed.
The best phylogenetic reconstruction was obtained using the COI region, and we consider it an appropriate marker for
phylogenetic studies within the group. Consensus analysis (COI +16S rRNA) generally obtained the same tree topologies and
confirmed that the genus Nerita is monophyletic. The consensus analysis using parsimony recovered a monophyletic group
consisting of the genera Neritina, Septaria, Theodoxus, Puperita, and Clithon, while in the Bayesian analyses Theodoxus is separated
from the other genera. The phylogenetic status of the species from the genus Nerita from the Colombian Caribbean generated
in this study was consistent with that reported for the genus in previous studies. In the resulting consensus tree obtained using
maximum parsimony, we included information on habitat type for each species, to map the evolution by habitat. Species of
the family Neritidae possibly have their origin in marine environments, which is consistent with conclusions from previous
reports based on anatomical studies.
Keywords: Colombian Caribbean, mitochondrial genes, mtDNA, Nerita, Neritina, radiation.
RESUMEN
La familia Neritidae cuenta con representantes en regiones tropicales y subtropicales adaptadas a diferentes ambientes, con
un registro fósil que data para finales del Cretáceo. Sin embargo no se han realizado estudios de filogenia molecular en la
familia. En este estudio se realizó una reconstrucción filogenética de la familia Neritidae utilizando las regiones COI (722 pb)
y 16S rRNA (559 pb) del genoma mitocondrial. Se realizaron análisis de distancias de Neighbor-Joining, Máxima Parsimonia
e Inferencia Bayesiana. La mejor reconstrucción filogenética fue mediante la región COI, considerándola un marcador
apropiado para realizar estudios filogenéticos dentro del grupo. El consenso de las relaciones filogenéticas (COI+16S rRNA)
permitió confirmar que el género Nerita es monofilético. El consenso del análisis de parsimonia reveló un grupo monofilético
formado por los géneros Neritina, Septaria, Theodoxus, Puperita y Clithon, mientras que en el análisis bayesiano Theodoxus se
encuentra separado de los otros géneros. El resultado en las especies del género Nerita del Caribe colombiano fue consistente
con lo reportado para el género en estudios previos. En el árbol resultante del análisis de parsimonia se sobrepuso la
Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
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Quintero-Galvis J, Castro LR
información del hábitat de cada especie, para mapear la
evolución por hábitat. Se obtuvo como resultado que las
especies de la familia Neritidae posiblemente tengan su origen en un ambiente marino, siendo congruente con lo reportado en estudios anatómicos realizados anteriormente.
Palabras clave: Caribe colombiano, genoma mitocondrial,
ADNmt, Nerita, Neritina, radiación.
INTRODUCTION
The Neritimorpha (Neritopsina) comprises more than 450
extant species, with a fossil record reported from the Middle
Devonian ca 375 million years ago, but possibly as early as
Ordovician (Kano et al., 2002). The families Neritidae,
Phenacolepadidae, Neritopsidae, Helicinidae, Ceresidae,
Proserpinidae, Hydrocenidae, and Titiscaniidae are included
in this group (Thompson, 1980; Ponder and Lindberg, 1997;
Ponder, 1998).
Among gastropods, Neritimorpha has had one of the greatest
adaptive radiation processes. The group has invaded marine,
fresh water, and groundwater environments, and exhibits a
great variety of forms (Kano et al., 2002). Snails with spiral
(several families) or conical forms (Hydrocenidae), with or
without opercula, and even slugs that do not develop shells
(Titiscaniidae) are included in this group. Some species can
be found in terrestrial environments such as those belonging
to the families Helicinidae, Ceresidae, Proserpinidae, and
Hydrocenidae, whereas other species, namely those in Neritidae,
can be found in freshwater and estuarine environments
(Thompson, 1980; Ponder, 1998).
The Neritidae has representatives in tropical and subtropical
regions, adapted to different environments, and exhibits
morphological modifications in various habitats (Holthuis,
1995; Kano et al., 2002). This family seems to have its origins
in the sea (Kano et al., 2006). About 100 species of the genus
Nerita live on marine and intertidal rocks. Species of the genus
Smaragdia are found in seagrass areas. However, a higher
diversity of Neritidae occurs in freshwater and estuarine waters,
in terms of both numbers of genera and of species. Worldwide,
200 species comprise the genera Neritodryas, Clithon, Vittina,
Neritina, Neripteron and Septaria (Kano et al., 2002; Kano et al.,
2006). Members of the family Neritidae are relatively well
represented in the fossil record, dating from the end of the
Cretaceous (Bandel, 2008; Frey and Vermeij, 2008).
The evolutionary relations within the family Neritidae have
not been well studied, although important studies have been
conducted on various genera. For the genus Nerita, there is a
very complete analysis of the molecular phylogeny and
biogeography of the group in the tropics, using the COI and
16S rRNA genes of the mitochondrial genome and the ATPS
subunit of the nuclear genome (Frey and Vermeij, 2008; Frey,
2010a). Other studies reconstructed the evolutionary history
of the genus Theodoxus and its distribution across the Tethys
Sea, using COI and 16S rRNA genes (Bunje and Lindberg,
308 -
Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
2007). Studies have also been conducted on the genus Neritina
using the COI gene, to analyze the phylogenetic distribution
of different reproductive strategies (Kano, 2009).
Using anatomical data of species in different genera within
Neritopsina, Holthuis (1995), performed a phylogenetic reconstruction of the group, and proposed a phylogeny based
on 57 morphological characters. Other studies have used
species of the family Neritidae to resolve the phylogeny of
Neritimorpha (Neritopsina) and the evolutionary history of the
group using nuclear and mitochondrial markers (Kano et al.,
2002; Aktipis and Giribet, 2010; Castro and Colgan, 2010).
In this study we performed a phylogenetic analysis of the family
Neritidae using COI and 16S rRNA regions of the mitochondrial genome, and included species from the Colombian
Caribbean. Additionally we reconstructed the evolution of the
family using habitat types.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The Colombian Caribbean is located in the northwestern
corner of South America (Fig. 1), and includes a coastline of
1937 km, a land area of 7037 km2, and territorial waters of
532162 km2 (Posada et al., 2010). A great variety of environments
is represented, including estuarine, marine, and freshwater ecosystems, and the region exhibits a high diversity of organisms.
Collection and Identification of Samples and Sequences
Nine species of neritid snails were collected from different
habitats of the Colombian Caribbean (Table 1) and were
preserved in 96 % ethanol. Samples were identified using
morphological taxonomic keys and catalogs (Russell, 1941;
Díaz and Puyana, 1994; Yidi and Sarmiento, 2010).
Sequences of the COI and 16S rRNA (16S) regions of
additional species of the family Neritidae were obtained from
GenBank, and were stored with the program MEGA 5 (Tamura
et al., 2011), and used in conjunction with the species collected
and analyzed from the Colombian Caribbean region. Table 2
shows accession numbers, locality, and habitat for each
species downloaded from GenBank. Habitat and locality
information were complemented by a literature review. The
following total numbers of species by genus were obtained:
Puperita (1), Clithon (3), Nerita (44), Neritina (4), Septaria (2)
and Theodoxus (3).
DNA Extraction, Amplification and Sequencing
DNA was extracted from the tissue of the foot of each
species, using the DNA easy tissue extraction kit (QIAGEN,
Valencia, California). The cytochrome oxidase I and 16S rRNA
regions of the mitochondrial genome were amplified for each
species. PCRs were performed on a total volume of 25 µl.
Reactions contained 2,5 µl of 10X buffer, 1 µl of MgCl2 (25
mM), 0,5 µl dNTPs (1 mM), 0,5 µl of Taq polymerase (5 U/mL)
(BIOLINE), 2 µl of each primer (10 mM) and 1 µl of DNA.
Molecular Phylogeny of the Neritidae (Gastropoda: Neritimorpha)
Based on the Mitochondrial Genes Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) and 16S rRNA
Figure 1. Study area showing the sampling sites.
Amplifications were performed in an Eppendorf gradient
PCR thermocycler with the following primer combinations:
[COI (HCO2198 5’ - 3’ TAAACTTCAGGGTGACCAAAAAATCA)
and (LCO1490 5’ - 3’ GGTCAACAAATCATAAAGATATTGG)
(Folmer et al., 1994)]; [16S (16Sar 5’ - 3’ CGCCTGTTTATCAA
AAACAT) and (16Sbr 5’ - 3’ CCGGTCTGAACTCAGATCACGT)
(Palumbi, 1996)].
PCR conditions for each gene varied, but generally the amplification consisted of denaturation at 95 °C for 1:00 min,
35 cycles of denaturation at 95 °C 00:15 s, annealing for the
COI gene was 46-51 °C, and for the 16S gen was 51-57 °C
for 1:00 min, and 1:30 min extension at 72 °C, followed by
5:00 min final extension at 72 °C. PCR optimization for each
template involved the variation of MgCl2 concentration and
annealing temperature. To remove unincorporated primers
and dNTPs before sequencing, double-stranded PCR products were purified using the nucleic acids purification kit of
MACHEREY-N. Both strands of the PCR product were sequenced. Primer sequences were removed from the start and
the end of the obtained sequence and sequence ambiguities
were resolved by comparing the electropherograms using the
program BioEdit v. 7.0.5.3 (Hall, 1999). The sequences were
submitted to GenBank and are available under Accession
numbers JX646654 to JX646671 (Table 1).
Sequence Alignment
CLUSTAL X (Thompson et al., 1997) was used to align the
edited sequences and the sequences of the species of Neritidae
obtained from GenBank. Representatives of six different
genera out of the 16 genera reported for the family were thus
included.
Alignments were performed using MEGA (v.5) (Tamura et al.,
2011). We used MEGA (v.5) to align the COI gene, because
this approach can translate the protein-coding nucleotide
sequences using the invertebrate mitochondrial genetic code,
align the resulting amino acid sequences using Clustal, and
then create a nucleotide sequence alignment using the amino
acid alignment as a guide.
The Clustal settings for the COI gene were: pairwise alignment
parameters: gap open penalty = 10, extension penalty = 0,1;
multiple alignment parameters: gap open penalty = 10,
extension penaly = 0,2; protein weight matrix = Gonnet 250;
residue specific penalties = on; hydrophobic penalties = on;
gap separation distance = 4; end gap separation = off; negative
Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
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Quintero-Galvis J, Castro LR
Table 1. Locality and GenBank accession number of the sequences obtained in this study.
Species
Location
N
W
Habitat
COI
16S
Nerita fulgurans
Magdalena (Bahía Neguanje)
11°20’11”
74°5’46”
Marine
JX646664
JX646655
Nerita peloronta
Bolívar (Playa de Marbella)
10°26’37”
75°31’30”
Marine
JX646665
JX646656
Nerita tessellata
Magdalena (Taganga)
11°15’52”
74°11’33”
Marine
JX646663
JX646654
Nerita versicolor
Magdalena (El Rodadero)
11°12’36”
74°14’02”
Marine
JX646666
JX646658
Neritina meleagris
Atlántico (Ciénaga de Mallorqui)
11°2’14”
74°51’49”
Estuarine
JX646671
JX646662
Neritina piratica
Atlántico (Ciénaga de Mallorqui)
11°2’14”
74°51’49”
Estuarine
JX646669
JX646660
Neritina punctulata
Magdalena (Río Don Diego)
11°10’38”
73°49’14”
Freshwater
JX646667
JX646657
Neritina usnea
Atlántico (Ciénaga de Mallorqui)
11°2’14”
74°51’49”
Estuarine
JX646670
JX646661
Neritina virginea
Atlántico (Ciénaga de Mallorqui)
11°2’14”
74°51’49”
Estuarine
JX646668
JX646659
Table 2. Species of the family Neritidae from which COI and 16SrRNA sequences were obtained from GenBank, including NCBI accession number.
The habitat and locality were taken from the publication of the Author. A-S (Author Sequences) 1. Aktipis and Giribet,2010, 2. Frey and Vermeij,
2008, 3. Bunje and Lindberg, 2007.
Species
# Acc. GenBank CO1
# Acc. GenBank 16S
Bathynerita naticoidea
FJ977768
FJ977721
Clithon chlorostoma
EU732363
EU732200
Clithon oualaniensis
EU732364
EU732201
Clithon corona
EU732199
EU732362
Nerita funiculata
EU732245
Nerita scabricosta
EU732307
Nerita vitiensis
Nerita undulata
Nerita tristis
EU732323
EU732161
Nerita textilis
EU732322
EU732159
Nerita spengleriana
EU732315
EU732153
Nerita reticulata
EU732312
EU732149
Nerita sanguinolenta
EU732305
Nerita senegalensis
EU732310
Nerita quadricolor
Nerita polita
Location
Habitat
A-S
Gulf of Mexico
Marine
1.
South of Oku, Okinawa, Japan
Estuarine
2.
Rowes Bay, Queensland, Australia
Estuarine
2.
Suva, Viti Levu, Fiji
Freshwater
2.
EU732082
Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador
Marine
2.
EU732144
Punta Conejo, México
Marine
2.
EU732357
EU732195
Koumac, New Caledonia
Marine
2.
EU732349
EU732187
Suva, Viti Levu, Fiji
Marine
2.
South of Oku, Okinawa, Japan
Marine
2.
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Marine
2.
Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea
Marine
2.
Doljo, Bohol, Filipinas
Marine
2.
EU732143
Port Safâga, Egypt
Marine
2.
EU732147
N'Gor, Senegal
Marine
2.
EU732304
EU732141
Sharm el-Nâga, Egypt
Marine
2.
EU732301
EU732139
Phuket Island, Thailand
Marine
2.
Nerita plicata
EU732296
EU732133
Sabang, Mindoro, Philippines
Marine
2.
Nerita planospira
EU732292
EU732129
South of Poindimie, New Caledonia
Marine
2.
Nerita picea
EU732290
EU732127
Hawaii Island, Hawaii, USA
Marine
2.
Nerita patula
EU732286
EU732123
Balite, Mindoro, Philippines
Marine
2.
Nerita orbignyana
EU732284
EU732121
el-Qalawi, Egypt
Marine
2.
Nerita olivaria
EU732282
EU732119
Gorontalo, Sulawesi, Indonesia
Marine
2.
Nerita ocellata
EU732280
EU732117
South of Oku, Okinawa, Japan
Marine
2.
Nerita morio
EU732278
EU732115
Anakena, Easter Island
Marine
2.
Nerita melanotragus
EU732276
EU732113
Victoria Point, Moreton Bay,
Queensland, Australia
Marine
2.
Nerita maxima
EU732274
EU732111
Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea
Marine
2.
Nerita magdalenae
EU732272
EU732109
Souillac, Mauritius
Marine
2.
Nerita longii
EU732270
EU732107
Haramel, Muscat, Oman
Marine
2.
310 -
Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
Molecular Phylogeny of the Neritidae (Gastropoda: Neritimorpha)
Based on the Mitochondrial Genes Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) and 16S rRNA
Continued Table 2.
Species
# Acc. GenBank CO1
# Acc. GenBank 16S
Location
Habitat
A-S
Nerita litterata
EU732267
EU732104
Zanzibar Island, Tanzania
Marine
2.
Nerita japonica
EU732262
EU732099
Dol-San-Do, Yeo-Su, South Korea
Marine
2.
Nerita insculpta
EU732258
EU732095
Kusa Beach, Lombok, Indonesia
Marine
2.
Nerita incerta
EU732256
EU732093
Rakata Kecil, Krakatau, Indonesia
Marine
2.
Nerita histrio
EU732254
EU732091
Railey East, Krabi, Thailand
Marine
2.
Nerita helicinoides
EU732089
EU732252
South of Cape Hedo, Okinawa, Japan
Marine
2.
Nerita guamensis
EU732250
EU732087
Fadian Point, Guam
Marine
2.
Nerita grossa
EU732248
EU732085
Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea
Marine
2.
Nerita filosa
EU732242
EU732079
Natadola, Viti Levu, Fiji
Marine
2.
Nerita exuvia
EU732236
EU732073
Pantai Kulambu, Sabah, Malaysia
Marine
2.
Nerita erythrostoma
EU732234
EU732071
Mackay, Queensland, Australia
Marine
2.
Nerita costata
EU732232
EU732069
Cape Gaya, Sabah, Malaysia
Marine
2.
Nerita chamaeleon
EU732230
EU732067
East Coast Parkway, Singapore
Marine
2.
Nerita balteata
EU732226
EU732063
Mackay, Queensland, Australia
Marine
2.
Nerita aterrima
EU732222
EU732059
Cap La Houssaye, Reunion Island
Marine
2.
Nerita argus
EU732220
EU732057
Leone, American Samoa
Marine
2.
Nerita antiquata
EU732216
EU732053
Cape Gaya, Sabah, Malaysia
Marine
2.
Nerita yoldii
EU732359
EU732196
Lung Kwu Tan, Hong Kong
Marine
2.
Nerita umlaasiana
EU732325
EU732162
Mission Rocks, KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa
Marine
2.
Nerita atramentosa
EU732223
EU732060
Tasmania, Australia
Marine
2.
Neritina canalis
AY771270
AY771225
Moorea, French Polynesia
Freshwater
3.
Neritina turrita
AY771273
AY771227
Upolu, Samoa
Freshwater
3.
Neritina oweniana
EU732365
EU732202
Ada, Ghana
Freshwater
2.
Neritina rubricata
EU732369
EU732206
Ada, Ghana
Freshwater
2.
Puperita pupa
FJ977767
FJ977719
Gulf of Mexico (Caribbean)
Marine
1.
Septaria porcellana
AY771274
AY771228
Moorea, French Polinia
Freshwater
3.
Septaria sanguisuga
AY771275
AY771229
Tutuila, Samoa
Freshwater
3.
Theodoxus fluviatilis
AY765306
AY771240
Erstein, France
Freshwater
3.
Theodoxus baeticus
AY771277
AY771234
Quart, Spain
Freshwater
3.
Theodoxus meridionalis
AY771292
AY771253
Sortino, Sicily, Italy
Freshwater
3.
matrix = off; delay divergent cut-off = 30 %. The Clustal
settings for the 16S RNA gene were: pairwise alignment parameters: gap open penalty = 15, extension penalty = 6,66; the
multiple alignment parameters were: gap opening penalty =
15, extension penalty = 6,66; DNA weight matrix = IUB;
transition weight = 0,5; negative matrix = off; delay divergent
cut-off = 30 %.
Sequence Characterization
We analyzed the degree of saturation for the COI gene using
the software DAMBE v. 5.3.0 (Xia and Xie, 2001). The percentage of A, T, C and G, together with the percentage of A
+ T and G + C for each region was calculated using MEGA
(v.5) (Tamura et al., 2011). We also calculated the number
of synonymous vs nonsynonymous substitutions for the COI
gene (Nei and Gojoborit, 1986) using the model NeiGojobori (Jukes-Cantor). The variance was estimated by the
method of bootstraps using 1000 replicates in MEGA (v.5).
Phylogenetic Analysis
For phylogenetic analyses we used three matrices: 1) 16S
gene; 2) COI gene; 3) Concatenated COI and 16S genes.
Phylogenetic analyses were performed using Neighbor-joining
(NJ), maximum parsimony (MP) and Bayesian inference
methods (BI). The NJ and MP analyses were conducted in
PAUP * version 4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002). Non-parametric
bootstrapping was performed using a full heuristic search
with 1000 replicates.
Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
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Quintero-Galvis J, Castro LR
Bayesian inference analyses were conducted using Mr.Bayes
v. 3.1.2 (Ronquist and Huelsenbeck, 2003). The analysis
model was chosen using MrModelTest (Nylander, 2004),
with the AIC criterion. The GTR + G + I model was selected
for both genes. For each analysis, four chains (three heated,
one cold) were run simultaneously for the Monte Carlo
Markov Chain. Two independent runs of 15 x 106 generations
were performed, with trees sampled every 1000 generations.
Each run started from a random tree. Asymptotic convergence
to the posterior probability distribution was assessed by
examining the plot of generation against the likelihood scores
and confirmed using the sump command in software Mr.
Bayes. Trees sampled prior to convergence were discarded
before construction of the majority rule consensus tree. The
percentage of sampled trees recovering a particular clade
was used as a measure of that clades posterior probability
(Huelsenbeck and Ronquist, 2001).
Although initial analyses using Haliotis rubra (Vetigastropoda:
Haliotidae) and Lophiotoma cerithiformis (Caenogastropoda:
Turridae) as outgroups were run, in these cases the internal
groups clustered with the outgroup and several inconsistencies in the tree were obtained, consequently we decided
to use the species Bathynerita naticoidea as outgroup. B.
naticoidea is endemic to the Gulf of Mexico and lives in water
depths from 400 m to 2100 m (Zande and Carney, 2001).
This species is currently included in the family Neritidae, but
it is probably more related to the family Phenacolepadidae,
according to evidence from anatomical studies and embryology
(Holthuis, 1995; Kano, 2006; Kano et al., 2002).
Additionally, for the COI and the concatenated analyses, a
BI analysis was performed separating each codon position
(1st, 2nd, 3rd) of the COI gene as a partition. The model for
each partition was calculated using MrModeltest 2.3, the
model assigned to the first position was GTR + G, to the second position was F81 and to the third position was GTR +
G. Substitution models and rates of substitution were
allowed to vary among the parameters ( unlink command
and ratepr = variable ).
Habitat Evolution
We manually mapped the habitat information for each
species onto the consensus tree, assigning a different color
to each habitat.
RESULTS
Sequence Characterization
After the exclusion of regions of questionable alignment, the
concatenated dataset consisted of 1281 characters (722 bp
for COI and 559 bp for 16S). For COI, the average frequency
of each base was 38.8 % T, 17.5 % C, 22 % A, and 21.7 % G,
and the percentage of A+T and G+C was 60.8 % and 39.2 %
respectively. For 16S, the average frequency of each base was
32.5 % T, 19.6 % C, 29.3 % A, and 18.5 % G, and the per-
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Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
centage of A+T and G+C was 61.9 % and 38.1 % respectively.
The number of synonymous substitutions per site for the COI
region corresponded to 1,2 ± 0.08 (dS ± SE) and the number
of nonsynonymous substitutions per site was 0.06 ± 0.006 (dN
± SE). The dN / dS ratio that defines the type of evolution was
equal to 0.054, indicating a negative selection pressure acting
on this gene (Pybus and Shapiro, 2009). Some degree of
saturation was found for the third codon position of the COI
region, Iss 1.9385 > 0.8011 Iss.c, but the position was included
in all the analyses because we considered that this site presents
valuable phylogenetic information that may not be detected
with the first and second codon positions alone (Källersjö
et al., 1999; Frey and Vermeij, 2008; Xia, 2009).
Phylogenetic Analysis
Phylogenetic reconstructions of the COI region using NeighborJoining (NJ), Maximum Parsimony (MP), and Bayesian (BI)
analyses produced similar topologies.
The result of the Bayesian analysis for COI (not shown)
included a highly supported monophyletic group consisting
of species of the genus Nerita; however, inter-node lengths
within the genus were very short and in some groups it was
not easy to see their internal relationships. The species of the
genera Neritina, Septaria, Clithon, and Puperita formed another
monophyletic group, in which Neritina virginea presented the
longest branch, indicating slightly higher nucleotide substitution rates for this species. The genus Theodoxus formed a
monophyletic group separate from the other groups. Although
the MP analysis produced a tree with similar topology, the
branches were longer and there was better resolution.
The analysis using the 16S region showed a divergent topology.
It showed two groups, one group contained the species of the
genus Nerita but with the inclusion of some species of the
genus Neritina. In this case, Nerita was not monophyletic. The
species of the genera Septaria, Theodoxus, Clithon, and Puperita
appeared as a single group, but without a clear divergence and
low support values on its nodes (not shown).
The consensus phylogenetic reconstructions (COI +16S)
using BI formed three groups (Fig. 2a), a monophyletic group
formed by the species of the genus Theodoxus, another
monophyletic group formed by the species of the genus Nerita
and another group with the remaining genera. The
monophyly of the genus Nerita and the genus Theodoxus was
supported with values of 1.00 and 0.89, respectively (Fig. 2a).
In the consensus analyses using MP and NJ, two groups were
resolved. A monophyletic group consisting of species of the
genus Nerita, with a high bootstrap support of 96 %, and
another group with species of the genera Neritina, Puperita,
Theodoxus, Septaria, and Clithon with a bootstrap support of
56 % (Fig. 2b). The topology of the MP tree showed longer
branches in comparison to the Bayesian analysis, giving
better structure to the tree.
The partitioned analysis of the consensus dataset (COI 1st +
COI 2nd + COI 3rd + 16S) gave the same topology as the
Molecular Phylogeny of the Neritidae (Gastropoda: Neritimorpha)
Based on the Mitochondrial Genes Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) and 16S rRNA
Figure 2. Phylogenetic tree of the species of the family Neritidae. a) Bayesian consensus analysis of the COI + 16S rRNA genes using the GTR + I +
G model of evolution; the numbers correspond to posterior probability values. b) Maximum parsimony consensus analysis of the COI + 16S rRNA
genes; the numbers on the branches correspond to bootstrap values (length = 3876, CI = 0.2745, RI = 0.6185). The scales correspond to the number
of substitutions per site.
non partitioned analysis, however, the analysis without
partitions showed higher support values on the nodes.
Mapping Habitat Information
The consensus tree obtained using the parsimony method was
used to map the habitat information of each species (Fig. 3).
Based on the tree topology, this analysis supports the hypothesis that the family Neritidae originated in marine environments.
DISCUSSION
Phylogeny Of The Family Neritidae
Six percent of the world’s known species of Nerita occur in
the Colombian Caribbean (Frey and Vermeij, 2008; Frey,
2010b), as do 0.5 % of the species of Neritina that inhabit
freshwater and estuarine habitats (Kano et al., 2006). In
addition, one species of each of the genera Puperita and
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Quintero-Galvis J, Castro LR
Figure 3. Consensus tree (COI +16 S) of the Family Neritidae, using the topology of the parsimony analysis. The numbers correspond to MP
bootstrap values / Bayesian posterior probability values. The scale is the number of substitutions per site. The colors represent the habitat of each
species and the inferred habitat of deeper branches: blue = marine, green = estuarine, orange =freshwater.
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Molecular Phylogeny of the Neritidae (Gastropoda: Neritimorpha)
Based on the Mitochondrial Genes Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) and 16S rRNA
Smaragdia, occur in the Colombian Caribbean. As of July
2012, 44 species of the genus Nerita were represented in
GenBank, which corresponds to approximately 87 % of the
species reported in the world. In contrast, only 13 species
belonging to the genera Neritina, Puperita, Septaria, and Clithon
were reported in GenBank, representing only 7.5 % of the
known species of these groups. Most of these sequences were
generated through studies in Europe, Japan and the coasts
of North America (Bunje and Lindberg, 2007; Hurtado et al.,
2007; Frey and Vermeij, 2008; Kano, 2009; Aktipis and
Giribet, 2010). No species of Neritidae known from the
Colombian Caribbean were previously represented in Gen
Bank. Further, only one complete mitochondrial genome is
available for the Neritimorpha, that of the Australasian Nerita
melanotragus (Castro and Colgan, 2010). Thus, additional
sampling with expanded taxonomic, as well as geographic
coverage is needed to further resolve the phylogeny of the
family. Specifically, additional studies including poorly represented (Neritina, Puperita, Clithon, Septaria), or unrepresented
(i.e., Fluvinerita, Neripteron, Nereina, Clypeolum, Neritodryas) genera
are needed. In this study, we sequenced nine species of neritid
snails belonging to the genera Nerita and Neritina from the
Colombian Caribbean, and used them, together with the sequences available in GenBank to perform an integrated
analysis of the family Neritidae.
Our phylogenetic reconstructions revealed a similar topology
for COI both with parsimony or BI, separating three groups,
one consisting of the monophyletic genus Nerita, another
with the species of the genus Theodoxus, and a third group
including all the other genera. The analyses showed high
support on the basal nodes, confirming that the COI region
is a good marker for evaluating and resolving hypotheses
about the evolution of the group (Remigio and Hebert, 2003;
Frey and Vermeij, 2008). The 16S gene, on the other hand, is
considered a good phylogenetic marker in terrestrial mollusks
(Klussmann-Kolb et al., 2008), however, the trees produced
in our analyses were not consistent, giving different topologies
for the MP, NJ and BI analyses. This finding corroborates the
results of Frey and Vermeij (2008), who considered the 16S
gene as unstable and less useful for reconstructing phylogeny.
In our consensus analysis (COI +16S) of the family Neritidae,
the genus Nerita is monophyletic. This finding is consistent
with the results obtained by Frey and Vermeij (2008) who
evaluated the molecular phylogeny and biogeography of
Nerita. In our analysis the species of the genera Neritina, Puperita,
Septaria, Theodoxus, and Clithon formed a monophyletic group
by the parsimony method, however the genus Theodoxus was
recovered as a third independent monophyletic group using
BI, causing uncertainty about the phylogenetic position of
this group within the family, since in both cases the support
values were high.
Holthuis (1995), proposed a phylogenetic tree from an anatomical study of the genera and subgenera of the families
Neritidae, Phenacolepadidae, and Septariidae, based on 57
morphological characters. She considered each genus within
the Neritidae as a monophyletic group, an assumption not
consistent with the results obtained in the present study,
which is the first attempt at integrating all the molecular
information available. We strongly recommend the inclusion
of a larger number of genera and species, as well as other
molecular markers, in studies to further resolve the systematics of the group.
Regarding the species collected in the Colombian Caribbean,
Nerita versicolor and Nerita peloronta formed a clade that is
strongly supported by posterior probabilities and bootstrap
values, this clade was always associated with the species
Nerita scabricosta. This finding is consistent with what was
reported by Frey and Vermeij (2008), who placed these
species in the subgenus Nerita sensu stricto. Nerita fulgurans and
Nerita tessellata also formed a well supported monophyletic
group, which, along with Nerita senegalensis and Nerita
funiculata, represents the subgenus Theliostyla (Frey and
Vermeij, 2008; Frey, 2010b). The species Neritina punctulata,
Neritina piratica, Neritina usnea, Neritina virginea, and Neritina
meleagris, appeared as a monophyletic group in the consensus
analysis, but the individual analysis of the COI gene recovered
N. punctulata + Puperita pupa and N. rubricata + (N. virginea + N.
meleagris) as monophyletic groups, and the species N. piratica
and N. usnea formed another well supported monophyletic
group with species of the genera Clithon and Septaria.
It is important to highlight the close relationship of the species
N. piratica and N. usnea that was recovered in all the analyses,
which is consistent with Russell’s (1941) suggestion that they
should be considered a single species (based on conchological
characteristics). Since no anatomical or molecular analyses
have been used to resolve their taxonomic status, these taxa
have continued to be considered as separate species (Yidi and
Sarmiento, 2010). The sequences generated in this study for
N. piratica and N. usnea, showed no differences in the COI
region, and only a three base pair difference in the 16S region
between these two species. In contrast, comparison of these
sequences with those of N. virginea, showed 19 bp and 123 bp
differences for the COI and the 16S regions respectively; N.
versicolor and N. peloronta (another very closely related species
pair) presented 460 and 257 bp different in the COI and 16S
genes, respectively. We conclude that there is little difference
at the molecular level between N. piratica and N.usnea, and
question their classification as different species. We suggest a
more detailed population study and additional examination
both at the anatomical and the molecular levels to further
assess the status of these taxa.
Evolution of the Family in Relation to Habitat
Adaptive radiation is a response to natural selection and
ecological opportunity that involves diversification of species
with accompanying adaptations (Glor, 2010). Neritimorpha
is a superorder that has undergone significant adaptive
radiation, and has an extensive fossil record. It includes
Acta biol. Colomb., 18(2):307-318, mayo - agosto de 2013
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Quintero-Galvis J, Castro LR
representatives that have invaded from marine environments
to terrestrial habitats, mainly during the Carboniferous
period. Families that currently occur in terrestrial environments
include Hydrocenidae, Helicinidae, Proserpinidae, and Ceresidae
(Thompson, 1980; Kano et al., 2002; Kano et al., 2006),
whereas the family Neritidae includes extant representatives
in marine, estuarine, and freshwater environments (Kano et
al., 2002; Kano et al., 2006).
Mapping habitat on the phylogenetic reconstruction of the
species of the family Neritidae (Fig. 3), makes evident the
relationship of the species of the family with marine environments, and strongly suggests evolution from marine to
freshwater environments, as proposed by Kano et al., (2006).
The genus Nerita, fully occurring in marine habitats, is
recovered as a monophyletic group, whereas the species with
freshwater and estuarine habitats formed a separate group
(although Puperita pupa, which is marine, was recovered within
this group). Holthuis (1995) proposed, by an anatomical
analysis of the species of the family Neritidae, a parsimonious
reconstruction indicating that at least 12 changes have
occurred during the evolution among marine, freshwater, and
estuarine environments. According to this author, multiple
invasions from marine to freshwater environments have
occurred. Multiple invasions have also been hypothesized for
the genus Septaria entering freshwater streams in tropical
Pacific islands (Ponder 1998), and in the radiation of the
genus Theodoxus in the river systems of Europe and Central
Asia (Bunje and Lindberg, 2007; Bunje, 2007). Some freshwater species of the genus Neritina still have a larval stage in
estuarine or marine environments before returning to freshwater streams and rivers (Blanco and Scatena, 2006; Kano,
2009; Gorbach et al., 2012), further supporting the hypothesis that the family has its origins in the sea.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Francisco Borrero, Don Colgan and Tim Pearce
for useful suggestions on the preliminary version of the
manuscript. This work is part of the products generated in
the project 1117-489-25505 code 343-2009 funded by
COLCIENCIAS and the University of Magdalena. This work
was possible thanks to the scientific research and biodiversity
collecting permit No. 15 from the 16 of December 2012 given
by ANLA, and the Access to Genetic Resources without
commercial interest contract No. 71 between Ministerio de
Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible and Lyda Raquel Castro.
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